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If you read manga you may notice a strong use of words for sound effects, much like we use sound words in comics of our country. This effect is something reaching far beyond the comic world and is deeply ingrained into both the Japanese culture and language, so much so they have 3 different classes of onomatopoeia.

擬声語(ぎせいご) show the sounds various things & beings make(closer to what an Onomatopoeia means and does in English) and is the most prevalent of the 3 kinds of words.These can represent things like gulping down liquids(がぶがぶ) and stuff that goes crunch or scrapes along something(こりこり, which can also represent the sound of something happening down south for men)

擬態語(ぎたいご) show the kinds of things that can't be felt by the 5 senses, like someone having language fluency(ぺらぺら) or barely doing something(ぎりぎり).

擬情語(ぎじょうご) represent different states of mind, like exhaustion(くたくた) or irritation(いらいら), often lumped together with 擬態語(ぎたいご)

Depending on how they're used these can function as nouns, adverbs or even as a verb. Take for example びっくり. As an adverb it denotes surprise that whatever it's attached to has taken place IE びっくりパーティ(Surprise Party). However when (と)する is tacked on to the end of it, it becomes a verb*much like the difference between being surprised and describing someone as surprised*; this also applies to many nouns.

When used as adverbs, some are applied specifically to verbs related to what they further describe, such as with きらきら光(ひか)る[sparkling light] and しとしと(と)降(ふ)る[gently falling/raining/snowing]. They also function much the same way な adjectives do

In casual speech repeating sound words can even omit the repeating portion and carry the same meaning, such as with いらいらする becoming simply いらする[both meaning to be angry]

You may be wondering why anyone would learn this, on top of the multitude of words needed to build up a decent vocabulary. Well there's always a moment where we can't find the exact kind of word we want to use and use descriptive words to try and convey what we mean(such as when we say someone looks very fierce when they display a great amount of anger and focus), In the process of learning a new language this is especially true, and will be great help to you when the one word you're looking escapes you at that critical moment. To illustrate this principle let's watch a chat between two friends sitting on the beach during the dusk

ここで日没(にちぼつ)のとき、すごく美(うつく)しいよ。 水(みず)が。。。あのう。。。
えっと。。。
(here PlP sunset PosP time amazing beautiful EmP water SuP *delaying sound* *delaying sound*)[?]
[It's amazingly beautiful here when the sun sets. The water is...err...umm...]

ん?何(なに)言(い)いたいなの?
(*delaying sound* what say want EmP)[?]
[Mm? What'd you wanna say?]

えっと。。。水が。。。きらきらだ?
(*delaying sound* water SuP sparkle)[?]
[Umm...the water is...sparkly?]

きらきら? こどもみたいよ!不名誉(ふめいよ)にあなたの頭(あたま)を架(か)けろ。
(sparkle child seem like EmP shame InObP you PosP head DiObP hang)[?]
[Sparkly? You sound like a kid! Hang your head in shame]

There are many different ways and contexts these can be utilized and applied, so be sure to get in touch with knowledegable people and look into the intricacies of using these Onomatopoeia. To get you started on this here are a couple sites you may wanna hit up during your studies:
Archive of Manga Sound FX
Gomi Taro Index
Onomatopoeia Website
Notes on Japanese Onomatopoeia(as well as a cache of one of the sites mentioned in the article that are no longer around)

For a list of all the vocab you're seen during the lesson, look here

With numbers も　can help to place emphasis on a number, whether it be the length of time someone's been waiting for something or how many books you have in your collection. In the positive context this can mean someone has an exact amount of things/hours/etc(if a number is present) or an abundance of something(if no number is present, represented by 何[なん/なに]＋*counter*), IE very much, many, and similar phrases emphasizing a number. The latter usage is also the one used in questions involving different amounts of things(how old are you, how much did you spend, etc.). To observe these principles in action let's have a peek at a friend coming upon someone they know freezing in front of a bookstore.

しまった、 ぞっとするよ! 本屋(ほんや)の前(まえ)に何時間(なんじかん)も待(ま)ってるのか?
(*interjection* shiver EmP bookstore PosP front how many hours CoP wait ?P)[?]
[Holy crap, man, you're shivering! How long have you been waiting in front of the bookstore for?]

知(し)らんよ。ここに何時間も待ってるぞ。彼女(かのじょ)は本(ほん)を15冊(じゅうごさつ)も買(か)いたいと言(い)ったんだ
(know EmP here PlP how many hours CoP wait EmP girl ToP book DiObP 15 volume CoP QuP say)[?]
[Dunno, been waiting here for who knows how many hours. Girl said she wants to buy no less than 15 volumes of books]

どの彼女?
(which girl)[?]
[Which girl?]

あの眼鏡っ子(めがねっこ)よ。だれだれさん 、 あの。。。
(that glasses girl EmP who noun suf. *delaying sound*)[?]
[You know, that nerdish girl. Miss what's-her-name, umm...]

いつえさん?
(Itsue noun suf.)[?]
[you mean Itsue?]

ええ、 そうだ。『あなたに特別(とくべつ)なギフトがあるよ』とも言った。これはとてもおもしろくになるかもしれんよ。
(yes like that you InObP special gift DiObP exist QuP CoP say this ToP very interesting InObP become could be)[?]
[Yeah, that's her. She also said she's got a special gift for me. This could turn out to be very interesting.]

In a negative context this usage shows many different kinds of things, the first being not having enough of something or close to "Not even" in more specific terms. For example, say you and your friends are near a Photo Booth (or in Japan, Print Club, with プリクラ being the more commonly used shorthand name) and want to take a group photo. All of you check your pockets and discover you're all flat broke. Irritated, someone in the group says:

だれも一円(いちえん)も持(も)っていないか?
(who CoP 1 en CoP have ?p)[?]
[None of you have even one lousy En on you?]

(special note: this construct[*number+counter+も] is often used in the negative context, and that way expresses "Not even *number**object*. In the positive context it emphasizes the number being used)

いつ+も deals with time. In the positive sense it portrays consistently doing something, like always walking on Saturday mornings or going on the ride every time you go to the park; negatively it implies the opposite, in which you never do these things.(although they tend to use more specialized word for these kinds of situations you'll see later on). The construct いつもの(noun) claims the object you normally have, IE the usual books (いつもの本) or an everyday lunch(いつものランチ) , while いつもより(descriptor) is used to imply something is more(with positive sentences) or less(with negative) a certain way than usual, like how we would say "He seems faster than usual(いつもより早(はや)そうよ)."

どれ+も and どちら+も/どっち+も both deal with choice, and when used imply a freedom of choice, in this sense meaning "Either one is (sentence)" The different between them is that どちらも/どっちも is used when there's a choice between 2 objects, where as どれ+も is used when there 3+ choices, as well as general questions about the kinds of you you or others may like. For example let's observe a conversation between a young car enthusiast and his friend about different cars as they peruse the lots of a local dealership.

車の中にどれをドライブしたいのですか？
(car PosP in InObP which drive want ?p)[?]
[Out of all the cars here, which one would you want to drive the most?]

どれでもいいけど…Nissan GTRをドライブしたいんだろう。めっちゃ楽しそうだ。
(which InObP CoP good but Nissan GTR DiObP drive want probably very fun seems)[?]
[They're all good choices...but I'd probably wanna drive the Nissan GTR. It seems super fun.]

どう+して+も, although it can translate similarly, communicates two very different kinds of emotions depending on context. In the positive context it communicates a sense of dogged determination, much like saying you'll do whatever it takes, or at any cost, along with similar terms of steely resolve. In the negative tense it shows a deep despair about the action, close to the phrase "No matter what I do,(negative sentence)" These rules also apply to the constructs "(sentence containing question word & ending in a て verb)も " "何(counter)(sentence ending in the て form)も" & "sentence+どう/いくら(て form verb)も, such as with this sentence spoken by a passionate cook working with potatoes:

いもはどう料理してもおいしいよ！
(potato ToP how cook CoP fluent delicious EmP)[?]
[Potatoes are delicious no matter how you cook 'em!]

In a normal sentence, (てverb+も) can be used to express a bolder tone from the speaker concerning what they plan to do, in spite of current conditions. In this case it's close to how we would say "To hell if you don't got any cash, we're goin' on that vacation, dammit!(お金(かね)がなくても、あの旅行(りょうこう)に行(い)ってるぞ！)" Ways it's often translated as are even if(sentence, tense regardless)/although(sentence)/regardless(of)if(sentence), etc.

Special note: you're more likely to see these and those above(except the て+も usage) with でも attatched, instead of just も[particularly 何(なん)でも. だれでも, and どこでも in the positive context]. In general でも is used when the sentence is in a positive context and vice versa for も, but there can also be exceptions, so be sure to ask your teacher/more knowlegable peers about it. In addition to that, using でも puts a greater emphasis on the other person's opinion over your own and can also imply you wish to hear the other person's view on the matter. The rules for (question word+も) also apply when も is used in conjunction with other particles it can work alongside with. For a quick example of this, let's view a brief conversation some friends are having at a nearby park:

どんな場所(ばしょ)に行(い)きたいですか？
(what kind place DiP go want ?p)[?]
[What kind of place do you wanna go to?]

今(いま)、どんな場所にも行きたいよ。
(now what kind place DiP CoP go want EmP)[?]
[Right now, I wanna head to any kind of place.]

Many more subtleties also exist within these usages, and are definitely something you'll want to discuss with teachers and peers down the line, especially when you learn to connect sentences in one fluent thought(which you'll need to do with these kinds of sentences, as this use turns them into Dependent Clauses, meaning they must lead into another thought to be proper). Some of these more advanced usages will be discussed and revisited in future lessons.

One of life's greatest questions is "Why?" If you wish to give an answer with more depth than "Why not?" then you'd obviously use reasons to justify why you are the way you are, or what you do, among many other things. In Japanese there are many ways to express this, including the usage you learned about a while back. The first and most basic way to express this is with the Cause Particle から.

Placed at the end of a sentence where a noun or adjective is the focus, から construes the sentence as a reason for something, ie "Because I love it!(大好(だいす)きだから!)" or "That's why it sucks(ひどいから!)" among similar constructions(If the sentence ends with a noun or な adjective, tack on だ before adding から). In the same vein it can place an emphasis on a given statement, much like saying "I'm going to the coffee shop, so there.(喫茶店(きっさてん)に行(い)くから.)" when in a particularly foul mood.

When used in conjunction with だ or other variations of it, IE the commonly seen usage だから, it can be used at the beginning of a sentence; this is much closer to how people say "Because[sentence]" and similar usages. Used at the beginning of a sentence this conjunction can indicate irritation towards the person we're speaking with, this being translatable as "Oh come on,(sentence)" "I already said(sentence)" and other phrases of expressing annoyance. For example, you're at work and someone(use your imagination to fill in who) keeps calling you about their pet you were asked to take care of over the weekend(called Lucky, in this instance). Seeing as this is the umpteenth time you've been phoned about it, you tell them,

だからLuckyちゃん, 大丈夫(だいじょうぶ)よ. 終日(しゅうじつ)くつろいでる. 心配(しんぱい)するな.
(because Lucky Noun Suf. okay EmP all day relaxing worry)
(Already told you that Lucky's just fine. Girl's been relaxing all day. Stop worrying)

Like because and similar clauses connect sentences から also serves this function, however depending on the tense of the verb it follows it has very different nuances. When it follows a plain verb(and it's always plain) it serves the same function as because, therefore and similar conjunctions, like when a friend sends you a text that says "I'm free right now, so let's go see a flick(今(いま)は暇(ひま)だから、映画(えいが)は見(み)に行(い)きましょう)". When following the て form of a verb it communicates an action will follow soon after the previously stated one, IE After X,Y will happen. Say a friend is asking about your plans after school. If you plan to hit the gym, you would tell them,

クラスを終(お)わってから、ジムに行(い)くよ
(class DiObP over CaP gym DiP go EmP)[?]
[After class is done, I'm goin' to the gym]

The next, and most commonly taught usage is in explaining a subject's origins, such as where someone is from(どこから), what time an event starts/the length of time of an event/how long something's been there(いつから) is or what something is made of/comes from/starts at/etc(何(なに)から), much like the usages に&で have in their particular contexts. In fact, using から instead of those particles in those contexts helps to further clarify the point that's being made. For example let's look at に's usage in indicating a specific point in time.

パーティはごご6時(ろくじ)にスタートします!
(party ToP 6pm TiP start)[?]
[Party starts at 6PM!]

This indicates the general point in time something will happen. When replaced with から it's made specifically clear when the party begins.

パーティはごご6時(ろくじ)からスタートします!
(party ToP 6pm TiP start)[?]
[Party starts at 6PM!]

The same general rules apply for で showing what something is made of. If the person you're talking to isn't looking directly at what you're talking about(even if they are, if the change is dramatic enough), they might be left a little fuzzy on what it's really made/born/*verb* of. Swapping it with から allows you to emphasize the kind material used. For example, say you show your friend a bust you've been slaving over for weeks. They're so impressed with the level of quality they ask what it's made of. Knowing what you used, your answer would be,

この彫刻(ちょうこく)はもっぱら再生紙(さいせいし)で作(つく)ってある
(this sculpture ToP entirely recycled paper InP make)[?]
[This sculpture is made entirely of recycled paper.]

Given the level of detail, they don't seem to be very convinced of that fact. To further drive home what it's made of, で would be swapped out for から, like so.

この彫刻(ちょうこく)はもっぱら再生紙(さいせいし)から作(つく)ってある
(this sculpture ToP entirely recycled paper InP make)[?]
[This sculpture is made entirely of recycled paper.]

(Special aside: Among the questions words presented, も does not an apparent function when used with いつから. With どこから it implies either something happening from all sides or some place unexpected(positive) or that no one from any place would do something(negative). 何からも implies a sense of completeness from something/nothing(IE being free from all duties or being sick of nothing) 何から it self is most often seen in the phrase 何から何まで, implying a sense of thoroughness about a given act(like listing something from A to Z or cleaning a room from top to bottom). まで's usage(s) will be taught shortly)

Thanks Koiyuki! ^-^
That was really helpful!

One of the concepts intertwined with time and distance is frequency, through which one establishes how much of something becomes part of how a person develops, for better or for worse. In Japanese this is no exception and has it's own set of rules governing how to express them. To begin the learning process is a list of some of the most commonly used frequency words(all adverbs):

いつも
(always)

大抵(たいてい)
(usually/normally/etc)

時々(ときどき)
(sometimes/now and again)

余(あま)り
(leftover/remainder/not often)

全然(ぜんぜん)
(entirely/not (x) at all)

よく
(often)

You probably have a fair idea of how to use いつも by now, and in this context it's often used to describe that someone is always doing something, where as 大抵 states the subject doesn't do it as much, but still pretty often. 時々 denotes that the action discussed is one done off and on, and with the exception of いつも, all of the above are only used within a positive context to describe habit. 余り and 全然 are the opposite of 大抵 and いつも in terms of habit, 余り describing very infrequent usage and 全然 stating the subject being discussed isn't performed at all, as well as both being only used in the negative context when describing habit(in other uses, these words can hold entirely different meanings, which you'll discover in your studies and classes). In discussing habits, よく simply states the action discussed is something you do often, and, when used in a question, is a good way to gauge how often someone does something. Helping to show these functions are a pair of Salarymen(often pronounced サラリーマン, conceptually closer to the English concept of a Desk Jockey) going home after a long day at work.

おい, ひろし, 今(いま),何(なに)してんだ?
(hey Hiroshi now what do)[?]
[Hey, Hiroshi, what're ya doin' now?]

じゃぁ, まだ知(し)ませんよ. 吉野家(よしのや)を食(た)べに行(い)くかもしれない
(*delaying sound* still know EmP Yoshinoya DiObP eat InObP go probably)[?]
[Well, I don't know yet. I'll probably go stuff my face at Yoshinoya]

吉野家? そこによく行くか?
(Yoshinoya there DiP well go ?p)[?]
[Yoshinoya? How often ya go there?]

大抵行きます.牛丼(ぎゅうどん)は 安(やす)くておいしいのですよ. 六郎(ろくろ)さんは?
(usual go Yoshinoya ToP cheap delicious EmP Rokuro Noun Suf. ToP)[?]
[I go pretty often. The Gyuudon is cheap and delicious! How about you?]

余り行かん. 味千(あじせん)ラーメンの方(ほう)が吉野家より食(た)べるのが好(す)きだ.
(not often go Ajikan Ramen PosP more than SuP Yoshinoya less than eat PosP SuP like)[?]
[I don't go much. I like eating at Ajikan Ramen more than Yoshinoya]

If there's one thing made readily clear when we speak with others, it's that it's a rare occassion to express our thoughts in one single sentence expressing exactly one sentiment. More often than not we want to tell the person additional info we feel pertains to the conversation, which is where the next step of speaking comes in: linking sentences in a series.

What do I mean by this? Well if my friend wanted to know what I did today I would say I did some research, went for a walk and had some 吉野家(よしのや) for lunch. Linking sentences in a series helps us express such thoughts, which is what we will now explore. The simplest way of doing so involves the て form of a verb. You saw a bit of this before in Lesson 11.1, and with a few obvious exceptions the underlying principle is the same. Those exceptions in mind, let's examine the principles behind linking sentences with the て form.

You already saw how to do this with adjectives, and the same applies to verbs as well. In case you need a refresher, using the て form with descriptors allows you to link related descriptive words in a row, allowing statements such as this made by a project member about their peer:

あたしの僚友（りょうゆう）は頭(あたま)がよくて、粋(いき)でハンサムですよ。
(I PosP workmate ToP smart chic handsome EmP)[?]
[My workmate's got a good head on him, he's refined, and he's handsome!]

Used in a single sentence it can add a bit of softness to a given statement, which is more tonal in nature and is reflected in other languages when someone uses a gentler tone or choice of words, almost like trailing off at the end of a sentence. When linking phrases, this can be viewed in several different ways. To lay the base for this are two sentences linked together using this principle:

大人(おとな)は友達(ともだち)と踊(おど)ってビールを飲(の)みます.
[adults ToP friends CoP dance beer DiObP drink][?]

Now the common ways to look at these kinds of sentences will be presented, starting with their usage in a combination of elements.

大人(おとな)は友達(ともだち)と踊(おど)ってビールを飲(の)みます.
[adults ToP friends CoP dance beer DiObP drink][?]
(Adults party with their friends and drink beer)

The next way it can be seen is as a sequence of actions(IE X, then Y, etc)

大人(おとな)は友達(ともだち)と踊(おど)ってビールを飲(の)みます.
[adults ToP friends CoP dance beer DiObP drink][?]
(Adults party with their friends, then drink beer)

Another common usage is presenting cause and effect(IE the initial sentence leads up to what happens in what follows)

大人(おとな)は友達(ともだち)と踊(おど)ってビールを飲(の)みます.
[adults ToP friends CoP dance beer DiObP drink][?]
(Adults party with their friends, so they drink beer)

There's also Mode and expressing simultaneous action, both of which you'll learn more about in your studies. How does one know which way to interpet a given statement? Short answer: context. Long answer: read the situation around you and with that information, determine what the person is trying to communicate and make the apropriate response, as it is with many facets of the culture. The same also applies for the kind of thoughts you wish to express to other, with several more specific ways of linking to show the different kinds of tones and emotions that can be conveyed, with the negative methods using the て form being examined shortly

In today's world we do often do many things at once, from texting our friends while exercising to looking up the latest movies while out on the town(I often do research while I create new content for the various things I do). In Japanese there are a few different ways to express this notion, each one carrying a particular weight and feel to it. The first one, ながら, is used with sentences where there is one person doing multiple actions, and can only be used with verbs. Doing this involves attaching ながら to a verb stem, of which you can see in Lesson 5.2, if you need a refresher. To see this in action let's watch as a convenience store worker comes back to the apartment he shares with his old friend to find this note on the door:

"オレの友(とも)と話(はな)しながらパーティーに食(た)べ物(もの)を造(つく)るんだよ. 今晩(こんばん)はここにいたくないかもね. ￥50000(ごまんえん)をくれる. 東京(とうきょう)に楽(たの)しむぞ.
(I PosP friend CoP talk while party IbObP food DiObP make tonight ToP here PlP here maybe 50000 en DiObP give Tokyo PlP enjoy EmP)[?]
[Talkin' with my friends while whippin' up some grub for a party. You might not wanna be here tonight. Here's 50000 en. Go buck wild in Tokyo]

A couple tips to keep in mind when translating: with ながら, the tense of the last sentence determines the tense for both sentences, and can only be used when one subject is doing multiple things at once(the former also applies to upcoming forms). For two people doing something at once there are a few different options, 1 being using the て form. The basic function of this, and other forms to follow is like how we would say we were watching TV, while/and our friend was eating cookies, that particular sentence looking something like this:

テレビを見(み)て私の友達(ともだち)はクッキーを食(た)べてました.
(TV DiObP watch I PosP friend ToP cookie DiObP eat)[?]
[My friend ate some cookies while I watched the boob tube]

The next usage, 間(あいだ)に, is something you've already seen before in a previous lesson. The rules for connecting this and other uses you'll see shortly are as so: when following a な adjective, the な stays in place; の preceeds it when conecting to a noun; and nothing's needed to attach it to a verb(although it often uses the plain form of a verb). In this context it refers to something happening between two points in time(IE between the beginning and end of whatever time is discussed), and is often translated as during, while, and similar words. With swapping に out with a pause, it illustrates the action took place within the very beginning and very end of that point in time, and none other. This mainly affects the tone of the conversation, and places a greater clarity on when something happened. To observe this, let's watch a chat between two young females shooting the breeze at a local coffee house.

さぁ, Golden Weekの間に何(なに)してた?
(*delaying sound*, Golden Week PosP between PlP what do)[?]
[So, what'd you do during Golden Week?]

じゃぁ, 余(あま)りしませんでした. しかし, あの時(とき)だったことがあったんです...
(*delaying sound* not much do but that time PosP thing SuP exist)[?]
[Well, I did not do much. However, there was that one time...]

あの時? 誘惑(ゆうわく)しないでよ! 気(き)になる!
(that time temptation do EmP spirit InObP become)[?]
[That one time? Stop dangling that carrot! I gotta know!]

いいです. 水曜日(すいようび)の間, 寿司(すし)を作(つく)り方(かた)は手習(てなら)いしました.
(well Wednesday PosP between sushi DiObP make method PosP ToP learn)[?]
[Very well. All day Wednesday, I learned the methods of creating Sushi]

...えぇ? マジ?
(what really)[?]
[...What? Serious?]

はい, そうです. 六十(ろくじゅう)の手習いですね? また, 新(あたら)しい彼氏(かれし)を見(み)つけました. それだけです.
(yes, that way 60 PosP learn EmP also new boyfriend DiObP discover that only)[?]
[Yes, that is so. It is never too late to learn, right? Also, I found a new boyfriend. That is all.]

なんだ, これ! さらって言(ゆ)うな!
(what this murmur QuP say)[?]
[What is this? Don't just slip that in!]

内(うち)に functions much the same as 間に, except that it expresses the general concept of time intervals, and not the kind we can measure in minutes or months(thus, the pause function doesn't apply, either). It also lets us make statements such as "Eat it while it's still fresh(まだ新鮮（しんせん）な内に食（た）べる。)"