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What is an Okinawan? A question of Identity in the Past, Present and Future.
Jeremy Snow
Senior Seminar (Okinawan History)
Okinawa, as it is known now, is a land of lush green hills and friendly residents A place where residents of Japan go during their vacations to unwind and view all of the historical monuments that were erected shortly after the battle of Okinawa took place. However, it is easy to forget the people of Okinawa, lost beneath the beauty and advertising of the country as the ultimate relaxation destination. What does it mean to be Okinawan? Does it mean the same thing as it did in 1609? Or 1879? What about 1950? I would argue that the issue of identity is one that changes with the flow of history, and yet remains a central theme at the same time. How does this happen? How is it that the theme of identity can change from one period of time to another, yet retain a certain degree of overarching sameness? My paper will attempt to answer this question in the particular case of the Okinawan people. There are three distinct periods of time that I will be covering that I believe encompass the idea of identity both as a fluctuating term, as well as a concept that unites the Okinawan people. The first period is from 1609-1879. This covers a span of time from the invasion of Satsuma until the annexation of Okinawa by Japan. The second period covers from 1879-1945, during which time there were varying degrees of pressure exerted from the Japanese onto the Okinawans to become more ‘Japanese’. Finally, the period from 1945-present will focus on Okinawa’s continuing struggle for an identity that isn’t defined by the larger powers that they serve.
Satsuma’s Invasion, Okinawa’s Response and identity in Okinawa from 1609-1879
Satsuma Invades: 1609
I would argue that Satsuma’s conquest over the Okinawan people marked the beginning of the Okinawan identity crisis. Therefore, it is important to understand just what was going on in the years prior to the invasion. After Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s death in 1598, the entire country of Japan was thrown into turmoil. Feudal lords and warriors who had been out at war or sent to Korea made their way back to Japan as quickly as possible to participate in what would become a vicious power struggle in the next two years. The struggle ended with Tokugawa Ieyasu reigning victorious with his allies after the battle of Sekigahara in 1602. This marked the beginning of Satsuma’s advance towards Okinawa. Ieyasu saw to it that as land was re-distributed, those who had fought against him would not be in a position to gain power or to team up against him. Shimazu Yoshihiro (Lord of the Shimazu clan), was Lord of the province of Satsuma. He was removed from his position and forced to enter the priesthood, leaving his son Tadatsune in charge. A year after Tadatsune was appointed as new Lord of the Shimazu, he decided to go to Edo to visit Ieyasu and thank him for his leniency and mercy towards his former enemies. It would seem that this impressed Ieyasu, as he then bestowed upon Tadatsune a syllable of his own name (renaming the Shimazu lord to Iehisa) and re-instating him with all of the benefits that the Lord of the Shimazu had. This included the title of ‘Lord of the Twelve Southern Islands’, a title bestowed on Iehisa’s ancestor. . With the power of the Shimazu title in his hands, it would seem that Iehisa made a request to Ieyasu that the Ryukyu kingdom offer their own respects. Ieyasu must have granted permission, as Iehisa sent an envoy to convey the message to Sho Nei (king of Okinawa at the time). Sho Nei, however, refused to honor Ieyasu. His reason for denying the request seemed to lie in the fact that Ieyasu had only recently taken power and that Sho Nei was unwilling to honor him as the new ruler. Unfortunately for Sho Nei, Ieyasu was indeed the new ruler of Japan, and Sho Nei’s refusal was what ultimately caused Satsuma’s invasion of Okinawa. For upon hearing Sho Nei’s refusal to honor Ieyasu, Iehisa requested permission to teach the Ryukyu islanders a lesson, and Ieyasu approved the request in 1606. The samurai of Satsuma (having been in a peaceful setting for the last 3 years due to the war being long over) were ready to take up arms yet again. So, in February of 1609, Satsuma’s forces sailed to Okinawa with an army of 3,000 men. There were a few fierce skirmishes after the initial landing, but for the most part the Satsuma forces were too powerful and swept through Okinawa easily. They occupied Shuri castle on April 5th, 1609. Their invasion was complete.
Repercussions of Satsuma’s Invasion
What took place immediately after Satsuma’s invasion of the Ryukyus is important to understand one of the many stems of the Okinawans identity crisis. Firstly, it is important to note that Sho Nei was brought from the Ryukyu Islands to Edo, where the king was forced to sign a document claiming that the Ryukyu Islands were, and had been for some time, the territory of Satsuma. This disavowal of any previous independence was, no doubt, one of the many opening blows to the culture (and more importantly, the history) of the Okinawan people. Sho Nei was the first victim of this shattered pride. Witnessing the end of the kingdom of the Ryukyus as he knew it, Sho Nei must have felt as if he had failed in some way. Carrying these feelings to his grave, he didn’t allow himself to be buried with his ancestors, but rather in a small hill cave far away with a mask to cover his face in death After Sho Nei’s death, the kingdom had officially come to an end after 268 years in existence. It is hard to piece together the cultural reaction to the death of a kingdom that had existed for over two and a half centuries, but what can be said for certain is that Okinawa would not be a land of its own for over 300 years. For the period that followed Sho Nei’s death was the first of many acts of subordination. At this time, Okinawa was forced beneath the heel of not only Japan, but China as well. Forced to feign any allegiance to Japan whenever Chinese merchants or envoys came to the Ryukyus, the matter of Okinawan identity begins to become jumbled when they were forced to be Japanese some days, and Chinese on others. This mixing of both worlds produced citizens who were not quite sure of Japanese or Chinese traditions. However, the Satsuma people (for better or for worse) were not particularly concerned with assimilating Okinawa. This point was made perfectly clear by the fact that they were not to sing any Japanese songs or appear Japanese in any way when the Chinese envoys were in town . Satsuma’s main concern was the maintenance of the tribute tax system with China as well as continuing to receive the tribute tax from Okinawa on a yearly basis. This continued through the 1700s, after the shadow of Satsuma’s invasion had cleared and the residents of the Ryukyu Islands finally began to understand their place in the grand scheme between Japan and China. Except that now the Ryukyus also bore the burden of having to offer its tax-tributes to Satsuma annually .
Ryukyuans’ trade relations with Satsuma and freedom under Satsuma rule
There is a debate as to when life in Okinawa became desperate financially as a result of the tribute tax (if it was due to the tribute tax at all). Professor Inoue Kiyoshi of Kyoto University, as well as scholar Shinzato Keiji state that the tribute tax that Satsuma imposed on the Ryukyus had an immediate and devastating impact on their society. However, Professor Mitsugu Sakihara of Hawaii International College in his essay “Ryukyu’s Tribute-tax to Satsuma during the Tokugawa period” suggests that perhaps the numbers weren’t read correctly. In fact, according to his calculations, the people of the Ryukyu Islands were able to maintain the tribute tax without any problem until 1830, when Zusho Shozaemon decided to monopolize sugar. It was at this point that the tribute tax added up to a total of about 37% of the Ryukyu’s annual income, delivering a mortal blow to their ability not only to make money, but to maintain their own lifestyle . Whether or not the tax had a negative effect on the Ryukyus immediately, they understood that their role was another source of income for Satsuma. Gregory Smits, in his book Visions of Ryukyu, offers interesting insight into the nature of this relationship, and how it was actually a very strained one. Citing the Chatan-Eso affair , Smits shows how even in situations where the Ryukyuan traders stole precious cargo, Satsuma “had little choice but to rely largely on a royal government that was less than enthusiastic about cooperating with its recent conquerors. (Smits, 25)” This situation allowed for the Ryukyuans to exercise (albeit a small amount) of freedom despite the fact that they had been conquered by Satsuma. This freedom also allowed for Ryukyuans to attempt to rebuild a new identity for themselves in the aftermath of an upheaval of government. This identity, although unstable, stemmed from the fact that they actually did have a lot of power within their relationship with Satsuma due to their control over the tribute system and Satsuma’s inability to move too strongly against them for fear that the Chinese would realize that the Japanese were indeed involved, and therefore cut them off. This unstable freedom was complicated by the fact that the Ryukyuans understood very well that they were living a lie. This duality of desiring to create an identity for themselves while at the same time feigning ignorance of Japanese involvement created a troublesome situation for the Ryukyuans. Though troublesome, and somewhat confusing, the Ryukyuans still had a good amount of day-to-day freedom during this period, and began to try and construct their own identity as an indirect extension of Japan. Things went fine for a while, the Ryukyuan empire and Satsuma engaged in a relationship that strictly dealt with trade, but after Japan began closing its doors to the western countries (becoming a sakoku, or ‘Closed Country’), Okinawa was placed in an economically dire position. This was due to the fact that all of the younger leaders that had dealt with America and France and Britain had been exiled from the country, or executed during the period of intense western oppression . Okinawa was unable to fund the proper education of their leaders due to a number of natural disasters that had befallen them. This caused their leaders to seem incompetent in comparison to the other leaders who were defiant during Hisamitsu’s reign, seeking education in Western institutions and schools of thought and coming out on top because of it. This seemingly vast intellectual difference between the officials from Satsuma and those from the Kingdom of Ryukyu created a sense of superiority within those from Satsuma. On the other side of the coin were the officials from Ryukyu, who felt incompetent compared to the other officials. They didn’t take into consideration the fact that the other officials were able to get excellent educations and that the Ryukyu islands had suffered from a series of devastating natural disasters. The only thing they saw was their inability to keep up with the officials from Satsuma. Unfortunately for the Okinawans, things were not going to get better anytime soon. In fact, the true end of their kingdom was waiting just around the corner.
Project: Assimilation- Okinawa’s relations with Japan from Annexation through the end of World War II (1879-1945)
1879-1906: Health Care, Brutal Economic State and Jahana Noboru- Identity crises begin
On March 27 in the year 1879, Japanese forces arrived with a communication letter officially announcing the annexation of Okinawa and the official end of the Kingdom of Ryukyu. The king at that time (Sho Tai) was exiled while the princes (Ie and Nakijin) were given the status of ‘Japanese Peers’ in what was an act of ‘Imperial Grace’ . Ryukyu had become an official prefecture of Japan, with the new title of Okinawa-ken. The identity of Okinawans would now take on an entirely new stage. This second stage, divided into three distinct periods between 1879 and 1945, reflects the pressure from the Japanese side to become more Japanese. Assimilation was the goal, the only difference was the urgency with which Japan pressed upon Okinawa. One of the first major moves that Japan made was to create a healthcare system in Okinawa. This was due to the fact that sickness and social disorder had begun to take over after Okinawa found itself unable to recover from the disasters that had previously struck. Laws regarding the keeping of swine as well as the formerly ‘mystical’ practices of the Yuta priestesses for medicinal purposes were put into effect. While Okinawa needed this system and Japan was generous enough to help fund the program, it turned out that there was still much more to be done, as sickness still managed to claim thousands of lives within 5 years of the health system’s founding Despite Japan’s generosity in helping Okinawa establish a health system, they showed no interest in ensuring Okinawa’s financial health. Okinawa was now taking orders from Japan and was simply a cog in their trading machine. Despite their desperate financial situation, however, there was one key ‘success’ story that would help to illustrate the idea of an Okinawan identity at that time. His name was Jahana Noboru, and his experiences would reverberate through the core of Okinawan identity for years to come.
Jahana Noboru was one of the first Okinawan-born men to travel to Tokyo to study at their university. He was able to do this with four other men (three of whom left their own marks in Okinawan history . After obtaining the equivalent of a P.h.D in agricultural science, he returned to Okinawa as a national success story. The biography of Jahana Noboru typically focuses on his later clashes with Narahara Shigeru, who was the Governor of Okinawa (1892-1907) at the time. Instead of focusing on the conflicts, however, I would like to illustrate the way that Jahana’s story affected the concept of an Okinawan identity.
Firstly, Jahana’s ability to succeed in Tokyo was not only a testament to an Okinawan’s ability to keep up with other Japanese on a mental level, but in fact could have also been seen as Okinawa maintaining some sense of modernity compared to the other countries. Had Jahana (living in Okinawa all his life) truly been behind on the times, he wouldn’t have succeeded at Tokyo University. This helped to bolster the idea that Okinawa was mentally capable and modern (a counter-attack to the self-esteem crisis that ensued after Ryukyuan officials were shown up by those from Satsuma).
Jahana also commanded a large amount of respect and attention as a charismatic figure. In December of 1897 he was appointed to disperse some remaining land (the same land that he wanted to use as farms in 1893 and came down on the side of the peasants controlling the land as opposed to the government. So avidly did he oppose Narahara’s plan to place it under government control that he resigned in 1898 (under intense pressure). This image of an Okinawan so passionately fighting for what he believes is right, coupled with his willingness to accept the consequences further emboldened the Okinawans, and his popularity continued to increase.
Reaching critical mass in 1900, Jahana was seated quite comfortably on the Okinawa Agricultural Bank board of directors. He and two others controlled the bank, and he was the largest shareholder. Even though he was incredibly powerful, he was still isolated from a majority of the aristocratic population due to his hand in the disbanding of the Kodokai in 1896 . This isolation was his downfall as he was ousted from the board of directors soon afterwards and was left to live the rest of his life in poverty and madness.
The tragic tale of Jahana Noboru, while at first an emboldening and hopeful story of an Okinawan making a difference, turned into a tale that had a completely different moral. Jahana’s success created the idea that any Okinawan can succeed, and if they don’t then they are obviously lazy, or not trying hard enough. Jahana indeed opened the door for the Okinawan people, but beyond the doorway lie obstacles that they could never prepare for. When the Okinawans failed, it wasn’t due to the fact that they simply couldn’t have prepared for the prejudice that was waiting for them in Japan. No, it was because they were ‘stupid’, ‘lazy’ or ‘Not Japanese enough’. This sentiment would only be fostered more and more as the years went on and the Japanese government would begin applying more and more pressure for the prefecture of Okinawa to assimilate, and to do so quickly.
Pressures increase: 1909-1931
Thirty years after the annexation, pressures to assimilate came down slightly harder than they had in previous years. Why the sudden urgency in assimilating Okinawa? There are many reasons that could be attributed to Japan’s desire to get the prefecture of Okinawa to start acting more Japanese. Since the annexation in 1879 a feeling of pride in the country of Japan itself began. In centuries prior, a resident of Satsuma would first attribute himself to the province of Satsuma before announcing that he was Japanese. Much like the idea of someone saying “I’m Californian.” rather than “I’m an American.” It was after the annexation that this idea of national pride really began to take off, and as such a standardization of ‘Japanese’ behaviors and tendencies would have to be in order. These were the desires that would ultimately create the idea of ‘national solidarity’ in 1941, but for now it was not nearly as urgent. True, the urgency had been heightened, but it was still conveyed as a strong desire rather than a demand for immediate obedience. In any case, there was a movement to resolve the ‘backwardness’ of Okinawan life and to try integrating with Japanese society. As sugar was being produced in greater volume as a source of income both for Japan and Okinawa, Japan decided to modernize Okinawa by building basic national establishments such as airfields, post offices and other buildings. With the incorporation of these new establishments (that were already common in all of Japan’s other prefectures) Okinawan and Japanese life began to become more and more similar. At least, that was the hope for the Japanese. Okinawa began to attain a sense of solidarity in the fact that it was a prefecture, along with 46 others. In fact, in 1899 an Okinawa Prefectural Association was established and a publication titled Notes on Current Events in Okinawa circulated, establishing a sense of not only local importance, but also national and even global importance. Around the same time the educational system in Okinawa began to revolve around the Japanese language as well as Japanese history. These efforts to assimilate Okinawa were so successful that by the end of World War I economic and political loyalties rested mostly with Japan . Okinawans were making good progress, it was true. However, things were about to intensify even further as war with America grew closer and closer. Okinawa’s true test was waiting for them. Soon they would be able to demonstrate their loyalty to the emperor. By giving up their lives.
Assimilate Now! Pressures reach peak, World War II: 1931-1945
You’re Okinawan Now!- U.S/Okinawa tensions, the Reversion Movement and the rebirth of identity.
