Welcome to Gaia! ::

This sticky has information and tips for teen moms and all mothers. If you can think of an issue that's not included here, please PM me and I will include it. 3nodding And if some of the information isn't correct (because I have no children and thus have never breastfed before), please let me know and I will find correct information to replace the errors.

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Table of Contents:

- Post 1: Introduction <--- You are here
- Post 2: Teen Moms - Decided to Breastfeed as a Teen Mom [internet]
- Post 3: Helping Adolescent Mothers Breastfeed [internet]
- Post 4: Teenage Mothers and Breastfeeding [internet]
- Post 5: Breastfeeding on Wikipedia [internet]
- Post 6: Preventing Breastfeeding Complications [internet]
- Post 7: Drug Safety During Breastfeeding [internet]
- Post 8: Breastfeeding Guide [internet]
- Post 9: Reserved
- Post 10: Reserved

Helping Adolescent Mothers Breastfeed [internet]


Taken from: http://www.llli.org/llleaderweb/LV/LVMarApr90p19.html


The first telephone call a Leader receives from a teenage mother asking for breastfeeding help may take her by surprise and trigger a whirlwind of questions. Can adolescents breastfeed successfully? What issues or concerns are of special interest to teen mothers? Are adolescent mothers any different from the mothers who usually call or attend Series Meetings? Will the adolescent mother feel comfortable at Group meetings? How can Leaders most effectively address the teen mother's needs? And, the ultimate question: How can La Leche League Leaders help teen mothers breastfeed?

Developmentally, adolescence is a time of struggling for self-esteem and the establishment of personal identity. Adolescents focus intensely on their own dramatically changing bodies, their behavior, and their physical appearance. Acceptance by their peers is a constant concern.

Today's teens face pressure to become sexually active long before they are emotionally ready. Teens are bombarded by role models who promote premarital sex almost everywhere they turn: on television, in books, at the movies, and in the music they listen to. At a time when adolescents need their parents to help them adjust to their ever-changing world and develop skills for coping with life, many teens are becoming pregnant and are thus thrown into being parents themselves.

Dr. Eloise Skelton-Forrest highlighted the problem in her address at La Leche League's 12th International Conference in Anaheim last summer: "When you look at all the pregnancies in the United States, ten to twenty percent of those pregnancies are teen pregnancies. There are approximately one million teen pregnancies per year. Four hundred thousand of those pregnancies end in either spontaneous or voluntary abortion, which means that approximately 600,000 teens every year give birth to their children." No wonder, then, that more and more La Leche League Leaders are called upon to help teen mothers breastfeed.


Can Adolescents Breastfeed?

"Biologically speaking, adolescents can lactate. In cultures where human milk is the primary source of infant nourishment and the onset of reproductive years begins in adolescence, mothers do, indeed, produce adequate milk. No differences in quality or quantity have been associated with maternal age," says Dr. Ruth Lawrence. She does point out, however, that adolescents need more calories, protein, niacin, and thiamin to maintain their body stores during pregnancy and lactation than adult women.

Although teen mothers are capable of breastfeeding, most do not choose to try. Fewer than eighteen percent of pregnant adolescents say that they plan to breastfeed, and, of these, even fewer actually follow through on their decision. Most teens have little, if any, knowledge about breastfeeding, and those who think they know something about it often mention common misconceptions and old wives' tales. To combat these negative forces, teens need to know about the physiological and psychological benefits of breastfeeding to both mother and baby.


Special Concerns of Teen Mothers

Often teens are apprehensive about how breastfeeding will affect their bodies. David Elkind says in his book, All Grown Up and No Place to Go: "Perhaps because of the breast fetish of American culture, aided by the Playboy centerfold, teenage girls are extraordinarily sensitive about their breast development. It is one of the most worrisome perils of puberty for girls." Teens are not only afraid that breastfeeding will change the shape and size of their breasts forever, they also fear--even more intensely than the average nursing mother--being ridiculed if they are seen breastfeeding in public.

In addition, teen mothers want to know:

- How breastfeeding will affect their relationships with others:

• If they are married, what their husbands will think if they breastfeed.
• If they are not married, how breastfeeding will affect their relationships with boys.

- How breastfeeding will affect their other activities:

• How to leave their baby so they can go to appointments, school, work, or out on a date. Will breastfeeding restrict them?
• How to manage the practical details of breastfeeding while going to school and/or work, such as how to express, store, and thaw breast milk for their babies while they are away.
• How to breastfeed while trying to take care of a husband and household responsibilities.

- How breastfeeding will affect them physically:

• If breastfeeding will affect how soon they will return to their pre-pregnancy weight.
• If the baby will bite them while breastfeeding.
• If they can smoke cigarettes and breastfeed.
• If they can breastfeed while taking birth control pills.

- How to be a mother and other general concerns:

• What to do if baby cries.
• How they can earn enough money to take care of themselves and their babies.
• How to cope with staying home to take care of a baby while all their friends are going out on dates.
• How they can care for the baby who is born prematurely.


How Leaders Can Help Pregnant Adolescents

Jacquelyn Griggs, a Leader from Texas, was herself pregnant at the age of sixteen and also has helped two pregnant teens in her own family. She advises Leaders not to be afraid to suggest that teen mothers breastfeed. She cautions, however, that while teens need a lot of information and support to breastfeed, Leaders need to be careful not to overwhelm them with information. It is the Leader's own enthusiasm for breastfeeding that has the greatest impact on the teen mother.

Some Leaders are asked to work closely with a group of adolescent mothers by conducting breastfeeding classes at schools, clinics, or homes for unwed mothers. But the most common contact Leaders have with teen mothers is an occasional phone call asking for breastfeeding information.

As with all helping calls, a Leader's primary responsibility to the mother is to help the mother make her own decisions. It is important to treat the adolescent mother like any other mother. Treat her with respect. Listen carefully to her questions and provide her with information and support so that she can make informed decisions. And, perhaps most importantly, be sure not to talk down to her or treat her like a child.

While some teen mothers call with specific questions about breastfeeding, others are simply reaching out for support from anyone they can find who will help them. They may not even know whether they want to breastfeed. This type of call challenges a Leader to engage teen mothers in conversation and provide information that will help them decide what is best for them and their babies.

Leaders need to be especially careful to avoid judgmental language when teens call for breastfeeding information. Teens are usually bombarded with advice by family members, friends, or school and clinic personnel who have already told them that they are "too young to be a mother." So teens are sometimes defensive by the time they have reached the stage in their pregnancy when they are considering how they will feed their baby. In this case, Leaders need to be advocates for both mother and baby.

Leaders also need to recognize that many teen mothers lack family support. The mother's parents are often consumed with worry about their child having a child of her own. They may not be able to imagine their child breastfeeding. In this case, Leaders might suggest talking with both the teen mother and her parents to help the teen mother receive as much breastfeeding support as possible after the baby is born.

If the teen mother is married or has a boyfriend, he may not want her to breastfeed. Adolescent males are often just as confused about breasts and their development as their female counterparts. The teen mother's partner may worry about what his friends will say if his wife or girlfriend breastfeeds and may wonder about his own response as well. Leaders can help teen mothers learn to breastfeed discreetly so that she and the baby's father will be comfortable about nursing in front of others.

Many teen mothers are not married, therefore Leaders should be sensitive about using the word "husband" unless the mother says that she is married. Instead, Leaders can talk about the value of the support that the "baby's father" can offer.

Most teens face extreme financial hardships, hardly having enough money to take care of themselves, much less their babies. Teen mothers may not be able to pay for breastfeeding books or LLL information sheets. And many teens do not have their own cars, making it difficult to get to and from League meetings without a ride.

Leaders also can suggest to the pregnant teen that she "try" breastfeeding for a few days or weeks. This may encourage mothers to breastfeed who might otherwise never even start. Unless a teen mother brings up how long she plans to nurse, Leaders might want to avoid discussing long-term commitments to breastfeeding.

Pregnant adolescents become parents before they have an opportunity to fulfill their own needs to be nurtured by their parents. Often they do not know how to be parents because their training in how to nurture is incomplete. Leaders can be especially helpful to these mothers by being willing to talk about parenting skills and being open and honest with teens. As Djamillah Samad, a Leader from New York, says, teen mothers "need and want someone who can laugh and cry with them. Never judge. Teen mothers need our candor and our expressions of failure when things have gone wrong in our lives. They need someone who can really listen."


Emphasize Breastfeeding's Advantages

It is also helpful for Leaders to emphasize the benefits of breastfeeding, especially the advantages to mother. Because she is concerned about returning to her pre-pregnancy size, a teen mother needs to know that breastfeeding right after birth causes the uterus to contract and reduces the flow of blood, helping to prevent hemorrhage. Tell her that breastfeeding helps the uterus get back into shape more quickly than it would if she were not nursing. She might also appreciate knowing that breastfeeding mothers have been found to lose weight faster without restricting calories.

Emphasize that breastfeeding establishes a strong emotional bond between baby and mother. Breastfeeding gives the teen mother something she can do for her baby that no one else can. This may be especially important to her because many teen mothers worry that the baby's grandmother or baby-sitter will usurp them in their role as the baby's mother.

Leaders also can mention the economics of breastfeeding. Because most teen mothers have low incomes, they would appreciate knowing that breastfeeding saves them not only the cost of formula, but also doctor bills and medications, since breastfed babies have fewer illnesses.

Leaders might also mention that teen mothers would miss less school and/or work to care for a sick baby if they breastfeed.


Finding Local Resources for Teen Parents

Pregnant teens need to know about the various support programs available within their communities. Leaders can compile this list themselves or suggest that the teen mother check into her local resources.

Contact:

• high schools--to find out which schools offer parenting classes and have on-site child-care programs or allow teen mothers to bring their newborns to classes with them;
• hospitals and clinics--to learn which ones provide prenatal and postpartum services to adolescent mothers;
• doctors and midwives--to find out if they work with adolescent mothers;
• in the U.S., the local branch of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the WIC offices--to see what services they offer teen parents.
• in other countries, public health departments or clinics may provide services for teen parents.

Having a list of names and telephone numbers at hand enables Leaders to provide teens with a wealth of information and support. When gathering this information, Leaders may want to go the extra mile and encourage each school, hospital, clinic, and other organization to provide services for teen parents.


Teen Mothers at Series Meetings

Teen mothers rarely attend LLL Series Meetings, but when they do, there are ways Leaders can help them feel more comfortable. Lou Boyes, a Leader from Florida, suggests that Leaders "talk with (the teen mother) before the meeting, show her the Group Library, and introduce her to a mother who has attended meetings regularly so she will have someone to sit with. Explain during the meeting that a support person (doula) is important for every mother and that the doula can be a relative or a friend."

Leaders can help teen mothers at meetings by making sure the discussion includes mothering skills, such as ways to calm a crying or fussy baby. It can also be helpful to mention that most babies have fussy periods and to offer reassurance that meeting a baby's needs will not "spoil" him.

Also, it is important to include a demonstration of positioning and discreet nursing, because these issues are of paramount importance to teens. Leaders might ask the mothers in the Group to share how they resolved their own concerns and mixed feelings about nursing when others are around.

Jacquelyn Griggs suggests that Leaders be sure not to single out the teen mother during the discussion portion of the meeting. Teens want to be treated like any other mother at the meeting.


Special Breastfeeding Meetings for Teen Mothers

When a Leader is asked to work closely with teen mothers, perhaps the first thing she should do is to evaluate her own feelings about helping teens. While any Leader can offer information and support on an occasional basis, those who work regularly with teens need to be sure they can meet their special needs. One way a Leader can become more comfortable working with teens is to learn as much as possible about adolescent development and the experience of teens in different cultures, suggests Phyllis Maloney, a Leader from New York.

Some Leaders with experience in helping teen mothers have offered special teen mother meetings. These meetings usually feature the same format and basic information as regular LLL Series Meetings, but emphasize teen mothers' special concerns. For example, at Meeting No. 2, "Baby Arrives: The Family and the Breastfed Baby," the discussion may focus on how to involve the baby's father or a new boyfriend with the breastfed baby or how to breastfeed while the mother attends school or goes to work. Another possible topic is how to gain support of the baby's grandparents.

These special meetings are often purposely kept short, because teens are used to sitting in school classes lasting about fifty minutes and their attention tends to wander after that. Most Leaders suggest keeping meeting length to about an hour but offering meetings more often than once a month. Another suggestion is to keep meetings informal by using open discussions, offering ample opportunity for questions and answers, and the time for the mothers to talk about themselves. Since adolescence is a time of intense personal focus, meetings should be a place where teens can feel comfortable expressing their concerns and feelings about becoming a parent and breastfeeding their baby.

Inviting the baby's father and/or the teen mother's parents to the meeting is a good idea. Djamillah Samad asks teen mothers to bring their best friend with them to their breastfeeding meetings. They call the mother's best friend the baby's "godmother" or new aunt. Djamillah "trains and helps both young women in all the aspects and benefits of breastfeeding." Djamillah says that the "godmother" supports the breastfeeding mother and is encouraged to call the Leader for help when the mother is too embarrassed to call.

Djamillah also suggests inviting other teens who have breastfed to attend the meetings. "Teens understand peer pressure, but they have been exposed primarily to tales of negative peer pressure. I've tried to turn this around and use positive examples of teen-to-teen influence," she says. When other breastfeeding teens are not available to attend meetings, it is important to have a mother who is not a teen bring her baby to the meeting to model breastfeeding techniques and the loving care LLL philosophy offers.

Even though special meetings for teen mothers may only be an hour long, nutritious snacks are a must. Healthy foods set the stage for a discussion about the value of eating well while pregnant and breastfeeding.

Special breastfeeding meetings for teen mothers can provide them with a sense of belonging. In the latter stages of their pregnancies, as well as after their babies are born, teen mothers find themselves more and more out of step with their peers. They have responsibilities and demands placed on them that do not allow them to participate fully in the social activities they are accustomed to. At special teen breastfeeding meetings, teen mothers can get to know other young mothers who share their experiences.

These meetings also can give Leaders ongoing contact with teen mothers after their babies are born. As Jeanne Fisher, a Leader from Texas, says, "Attention derived from the birth of the baby wears off after a few months, and the mother usually decreases attention toward her baby proportionally." At meetings, Leaders and other teen mothers can continue to support the new mother, increasing her chances of continuing to breastfeed and meeting her baby's needs in other ways.


One Group's Experience

After Andrea Laurence and Beverly Morgan, Leaders from California, became interested in helping teen mothers breastfeed, they contacted a local home for unwed mothers to see if the home would hostess a special LLL meeting for its teen mothers. In January 1989, the Santa Clara Valley Group, which has a special emphasis on teens and young parents, was formed. Andrea and Beverly say that their Group functions much like other Groups, with a few exceptions. Their meetings are held twice a month to provide mothers the frequent contact they need to build and maintain support, the baby's father or the mother's boyfriend can attend the meetings, and the Evaluation Meetings are open to Leaders and Leader Applicants only.

Andrea and Beverly say that at each meeting there are a few mothers "who strongly resist the idea of breastfeeding." This is "because the home for unmarried girls that hosted our first series makes the LLL meetings for young and teen mothers a requirement for all those who live there. Having girls there who do not plan to breastfeed can be an advantage, as they provide opportunities to [discuss] negative comments about breastfeeding or to dispel misinformation. To our surprise, most of the teens want to breastfeed their babies, many for a year or more."

Andrea and Beverly add that "funding for the Group presented us with an additional challenge. Normally, the bulk of Group funds is provided by memberships and Group sales. Our Group attendees are typically on limited budgets with few opportunities to earn a discretionary income." These Leaders are considering asking businesses or individuals to sponsor their mothers' memberships. Their Area and other Groups in their Chapter donated books and information sheets, enabling them to have a library and to give information sheets at no cost to the teen mothers.


Leaders Have Much to Offer

LLL Leaders can help teen mothers breastfeed. Nancy Schweers says, "Teenage breastfeeding has the potential to reinforce positively the desire to love and bond [with their babies] that many teens do not have. The nurturing that we offer in LLL is a beautiful gift for mother and baby."

Breastfeeding on Wikipedia [internet]


Taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breastfeeding


Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with breast milk directly from female human breasts (i.e., via lactation) rather than from a baby bottle or other container. Babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk. Most mothers can breastfeed for six months or more, without the addition of infant formula or solid food.

Human breast milk is the healthiest form of milk for human babies. There are few exceptions, such as when the mother is taking certain drugs or is infected with Human T-lymphotropic virus, HIV, or has active untreated tuberculosis. Breastfeeding promotes health, helps to prevent disease, and reduces health care and feeding costs. Artificial feeding is associated with more deaths from diarrhea in infants in both developing and developed countries. Experts agree that breastfeeding is beneficial, but may disagree about the length of breastfeeding that is most beneficial, and about the risks of using artificial formulas.

The World Health Organization (WHO) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) emphasize the value of breastfeeding for mothers as well as children. Both recommend exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life and then supplemented breastfeeding for at least one year and up to two years or more. While recognizing the superiority of breastfeeding, regulating authorities also work to minimize the risks of artificial feeding.

Recent British research suggested that though breastfeeding was still recommended for 4 months, solid food should be introduced after that to reduce the incidence of iron deficiency, allergies to peanuts and early onset coeliac disease. However, the British Department of Health stated, "Breast milk provides all the nutrients a baby needs up to six months of age and we recommend exclusive breastfeeding for this time." The WHO recommendation for exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months is important in developing countries where there is a higher incidence of gastroenteritis.


Breast Milk

Not all the properties of breast milk are understood, but its nutrient content is relatively stable. Breast milk is made from nutrients in the mother's bloodstream and bodily stores. Breast milk has just the right amount of fat, sugar, water, and protein that is needed for a baby's growth and development. Because breastfeeding uses an average of 500 calories a day it helps the mother lose weight after giving birth. The composition of breast milk changes depending on how long the baby nurses at each session, as well as on the age of the child. The quality of a mother's breast milk may be compromised by smoking, alcoholic beverages, caffeinated drinks, marijuana, methamphetamine, heroin, and methadone.


Benefits For the Infant

Scientific research, such as the studies summarized in a 2007 review for the U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) and a 2007 review for the WHO, has found many benefits to breastfeeding for the infant. These include:

Greater Immune Health
During breastfeeding, antibodies pass to the baby. This is one of the most important features of colostrum, the breast milk created for newborns. Breast milk contains several anti-infective factors such as bile salt stimulated lipase (protecting against amoebic infections), lactoferrin (which binds to iron and inhibits the growth of intestinal bacteria) and immunoglobulin A protecting against microorganisms

Fewer infectionsAmong the studies showing that breastfed infants have a lower risk of infection than non-breastfed infants are:

- In a 1993 University of Texas Medical Branch study, a longer period of breastfeeding was associated with a shorter duration of some middle ear infections (otitis media with effusion) in the first two years of life.

- A 1995 study of 87 infants found that breastfed babies had half the incidence of diarrheal illness, 19% fewer cases of any otitis media infection, and 80% fewer prolonged cases of otitis media than formula fed babies in the first twelve months of life.

- Breastfeeding appeared to reduce symptoms of upper respiratory tract infections in premature infants up to seven months after release from hospital in a 2002 study of 39 infants.

- A 2004 case-control study found that breastfeeding reduced the risk of acquiring urinary tract infections in infants up to seven months of age, with the protection strongest immediately after birth.

- The 2007 review for AHRQ found that breastfeeding reduced the risk of acute otitis media, non-specific gastroenteritis, and severe lower respiratory tract infections.


Protection from SIDS
Breastfed babies have better arousal from sleep at 2–3 months. This coincides with the peak incidence of sudden infant death syndrome. A study conducted at the University of Münster found that breastfeeding halved the risk of sudden infant death syndrome in children up to the age of 1.


Higher Intelligence
Studies examining whether breastfeeding in infants is associated with higher intelligence later in life include:

- Horwood, Darlow and Mogridge (2001) tested the intelligence quotient (IQ) scores of 280 low birthweight children at seven or eight years of age. Those who were breastfed for more than eight months had verbal IQ scores 6 points higher (which was significantly higher) than comparable children breastfed for less time. They concluded "These findings add to a growing body of evidence to suggest that breast milk feeding may have small long term benefits for child cognitive development."

- A 2005 study using data on 2,734 sibling pairs from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health "provide[d] persuasive evidence of a causal connection between breastfeeding and intelligence." The same data "also suggests that nonexperimental studies of breastfeeding overstate some of [breastfeeding's] other long-term benefits, even if controls are included for race, ethnicity, income, and education."

- In 2006, Der and colleagues, having performed a prospective cohort study, sibling pairs analysis, and meta-analysis, concluded that "Breast feeding has little or no effect on intelligence in children." The researchers found that "Most of the observed association between breast feeding and cognitive development is the result of confounding by maternal intelligence."

- The 2007 review for the AHRQ found "no relationship between breastfeeding in term infants and cognitive performance."

- The 2007 review for the WHO "suggests that breastfeeding is associated with increased cognitive development in childhood." The review also states that "The issue remains of whether the association is related to the properties of breastmilk itself, or whether breastfeeding enhances the bonding between mother and child, and thus contributes to intellectual development."

- Two initial cohort studies published in 2007 suggest babies with a specific version of the FADS2 gene demonstrated an IQ averaging 7 points higher if breastfed, compared with babies with a less common version of the gene who showed no improvement when breastfed. FADS2 affects the metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids found in human breast milk, such as docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid, which are known to be linked to early brain development. The researchers were quoted as saying "Our findings support the idea that the nutritional content of breast milk accounts for the differences seen in human IQ. But it's not a simple all-or-none connection: it depends to some extent on the genetic makeup of each infant." The researchers wrote "further investigation to replicate and explain this specific gene–environment interaction is warranted."

- In "the largest randomized trial ever conducted in the area of human lactation," between 1996 and 1997 maternity hospitals and polyclinics in Belarus were randomized to receive or not receive breastfeeding promotion modeled on the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative. Of 13,889 infants born at these hospitals and polyclinics and followed up in 2002-2005, those who had been born in hospitals and polyclinics receiving breastfeeding promotion had IQs that were 2.9-7.5 points higher (which was significantly higher). Since (among other reasons) a randomized trial should control for maternal IQ, the authors concluded in a 2008 paper that the data "provide strong evidence that prolonged and exclusive breastfeeding improves children's cognitive development."


Less Diabetes
Infants exclusively breastfed have less chance of developing diabetes mellitus type 1 than peers with a shorter duration of breastfeeding and an earlier exposure to cow milk and solid foods. Breastfeeding also appears to protect against diabetes mellitus type 2, at least in part due to its effects on the child's weight.


Less Childhood Obesity
Breastfeeding appears to reduce the risk of extreme obesity in children aged 39 to 42 months. The protective effect of breastfeeding against obesity is consistent, though small, across many studies, and appears to increase with the duration of breastfeeding. A study has also shown that infants who are bottle-fed in early infancy are more likely to empty the bottle or cup in late infancy than those who are breastfed. "Bottle-feeding, regardless of the type of milk, is distinct from feeding at the breast in its effect on infants' self-regulation of milk intake." According to the study, this may be due to one of three possible factors, including that when bottle feeding, parents may encourage an infant to finish the contents of the bottle whereas when breastfeeding, an infant naturally developes self-regulation of milk intake.


Less Tendency to Develop Allergic Diseases (Atopy)
In children who are at risk for developing allergic diseases (defined as at least one parent or sibling having atopy), atopic syndrome can be prevented or delayed through exclusive breastfeeding for four months, though these benefits may not be present after four months of age.[39] However, the key factor may be the age at which non-breastmilk is introduced rather than duration of breastfeeding. Atopic dermatitis, the most common form of eczema, can be reduced through exclusive breastfeeding beyond 12 weeks in individuals with a family history of atopy, but when breastfeeding beyond 12 weeks is combined with other foods incidents of eczema rise irrespective of family history.


Less Necrotizing Enterocolitis in Premature Infants
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an acute inflammatory disease in the intestines of infants. Necrosis or death of intestinal tissue may follow. It is mainly found in premature births. In one study of 926 preterm infants, NEC developed in 51 infants (5.5%). The death rate from necrotizing enterocolitis was 26%. NEC was found to be six to ten times more common in infants fed formula exclusively, and three times more common in infants fed a mixture of breast milk and formula, compared with exclusive breastfeeding. In infants born at more than 30 weeks, NEC was twenty times more common in infants fed exclusively on formula. A 2007 meta-analysis of four randomized controlled trials found "a marginally statistically significant association" between breastfeeding and a reduction in the risk of NEC.


Other Long Term Health Effects
In one study, breastfeeding did not appear to offer protection against allergies. However, another study showed breastfeeding to have lowered the risk of asthma, protect against allergies, and provide improved protection for babies against respiratory and intestinal infections.

A review of the association between breastfeeding and celiac disease (CD) concluded that breast feeding while introducing gluten to the diet reduced the risk of CD. The study was unable to determine if breastfeeding merely delayed symptoms or offered life-long protection.

An initial study at the University of Wisconsin found that women who were breast fed in infancy may have a lower risk of developing breast cancer than those who were not breast fed.

Breastfeeding may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease in later life, as indicated by lower cholesterol and C-reactive protein levels in adult women who had been breastfed as infants. Although a 2001 study suggested that adults who had been breastfed as infants had lower arterial distensibility than adults who had not been breastfed as infants, the 2007 review for the WHO concluded that breastfed infants "experienced lower mean blood pressure" later in life. Nevertheless, the 2007 review for the AHRQ found that "the relationship between breastfeeding and cardiovascular diseases was unclear".


Benefits for Mothers

Breastfeeding is a cost effective way of feeding an infant, providing nourishment for a child at a small cost to the mother. Frequent and exclusive breastfeeding can delay the return of fertility through lactational amenorrhea, though breastfeeding is an imperfect means of birth control. During breastfeeding beneficial hormones are released into the mother's body and the maternal bond can be strengthened. Breastfeeding is possible throughout pregnancy, but generally milk production will be reduced at some point.

Bonding
Hormones released during breastfeeding help to strengthen the maternal bond. Teaching partners how to manage common difficulties is associated with higher breastfeeding rates. Support for a mother while breastfeeding can assist in familial bonds and help build a paternal bond between father and child.

If the mother is away, an alternative caregiver may be able to feed the baby with expressed breast milk. The various breast pumps available for sale and rent help working mothers to feed their babies breast milk for as long as they want. To be successful, the mother must produce and store enough milk to feed the child for the time she is away, and the feeding caregiver must be comfortable in handling breast milk.


Hormone Release
Breastfeeding releases oxytocin and prolactin, hormones that relax the mother and make her feel more nurturing toward her baby. Breastfeeding soon after giving birth increases the mother's oxytocin levels, making her uterus contract more quickly and reducing bleeding. Pitocin, a synthetic hormone used to make the uterus contract during and after labour, is structurally modelled on oxytocin.


Weight Loss
As the fat accumulated during pregnancy is used to produce milk, extended breastfeeding—at least 6 months—can help mothers lose weight. However, weight loss is highly variable among lactating women; monitoring the diet and increasing the amount/intensity of exercise are more reliable ways of losing weight. The 2007 review for the AHRQ found "The effect of breastfeeding in mothers on return-to-pre-pregnancy weight was negligible, and the effect of breastfeeding on postpartum weight loss was unclear."


Natural Postpartum Infertility
Breastfeeding may delay the return to fertility for some women by suppressing ovulation. A breastfeeding woman may not ovulate, or have regular periods, during the entire lactation period. The period in which ovulation is absent differs for each woman. This Lactational amenorrhea has been used as an imperfect form of natural contraception, with a greater than 98% effectiveness during the first six months after birth if specific nursing behaviors are followed. It is possible for some women to ovulate within two months after birth while fully breastfeeding.


Long-term Health Effects
For breastfeeding women, long-term health benefits include:

- Less risk of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and endometrial cancer.

- A 2009 study indicated that lactation for at least 24 months is associated with a 23% lower risk of coronary heart disease.

- Although the 2007 review for the AHRQ found "no relationship between a history of lactation and the risk of osteoporosis", mothers who breastfeed longer than eight months benefit from bone re-mineralisation.

- Breastfeeding diabetic mothers require less insulin.

- Reduced risk of post-partum bleeding.

- According to a Malmö University study published in 2009, women who breast fed for a longer duration have a lower risk for contracting rheumatoid arthritis than women who breast fed for a shorter duration or who had never breast fed.


Organisational Endorsements

World Health Organization



The WHO recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life, after which "infants should receive nutritionally adequate and safe complementary foods while breastfeeding continues for up to two years of age or beyond."


American Academy of Pediatrics



The AAP recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life. Furthermore, "breastfeeding should be continued for at least the first year of life and beyond for as long as mutually desired by mother and child."


Breastfeeding Difficulties

While breastfeeding is a natural human activity, difficulties are not uncommon. Putting the baby to the breast as soon as possible after the birth helps to avoid many problems. The AAP breastfeeding policy says: "Delay weighing, measuring, bathing, needle-sticks, and eye prophylaxis until after the first feeding is completed." Many breastfeeding difficulties can be resolved with proper hospital procedures, properly trained midwives, doctors and hospital staff, and lactation consultants. There are some situations in which breastfeeding may be harmful to the infant, including infection with HIV and acute poisoning by environmental contaminants such as lead. The Institute of Medicine has reported that breast surgery, including breast implants or breast reduction surgery, reduces the chances that a woman will have sufficient milk to breast feed. Rarely, a mother may not be able to produce breastmilk because of a prolactin deficiency. This may be caused by Sheehan's syndrome, an uncommon result of a sudden drop in blood pressure during childbirth typically due to hemorrhaging. In developed countries, many working mothers do not breast feed their children due to work pressures. For example, a mother may need to schedule for frequent pumping breaks, and find a clean, private and quiet place at work for pumping. These inconveniences may cause mothers to give up on breast feeding and use infant formula instead.


HIV Infection
As breastfeeding can transmit HIV from mother to child, UNAIDS recommends avoidance of all breastfeeding where formula feeding is acceptable, feasible, affordable and safe. The qualifications are important. Some constituents of breast milk may protect from infection. High levels of certain polyunsaturated fatty acids in breast milk (including eicosadienoic, arachidonic and gamma-linolenic acids) are associated with a reduced risk of child infection when nursed by HIV-positive mothers. Arachidonic acid and gamma-linolenic acid may also reduce viral shedding of the HIV virus in breast milk. Due to this, in underdeveloped nations infant mortality rates are lower when HIV-positive mothers breastfeed their newborns than when they use infant formula. However, differences in infant mortality rates have not been reported in better resourced areas. Treating infants prophylactically with lamivudine (3TC) can help to decrease the transmission of HIV from mother to child by breastfeeding. If free or subsidized formula is given to HIV-infected mothers, recommendations have been made to minimize the drawbacks such as possible disclosure of the mother's HIV status.


Infant Weight Gain

Breastfed infants generally gain weight according to the following guidelines:

0–4 months: 6 oz. per week†
4–6 months: 4-5 oz. per week
6–12 months: 2-4 oz. per week

† It is acceptable for some babies to gain 4–5 ounces per week. This average is taken from the lowest weight, not the birth weight.
The average breastfed baby doubles its birth weight in 5–6 months. By one year, a typical breastfed baby will weigh about 2½ times its birth weight. At one year, breastfed babies tend to be leaner than bottle fed babies. By two years, differences in weight gain and growth between breastfed and formula-fed babies are no longer evident


Methods and Considerations

There are many books and videos to advise mothers about breastfeeding. Lactation consultants in hospitals or private practice, and volunteer organisations of breastfeeding mothers such as La Leche League International also provide advice and support.


Early Breastfeeding
In the half hour after birth, the baby's suckling reflex is strongest, and the baby is more alert, so it is the ideal time to start breastfeeding. Early breast-feeding is associated with fewer nighttime feeding problems


Time and Place for Breastfeeding
Breastfeeding at least every two to three hours helps to maintain milk production. For most women, eight breastfeeding or pumping sessions every 24 hours keeps their milk production high. [not in citation given] Newborn babies may feed more often than this: 10 to 12 breastfeeding sessions every 24 hours is common, and some may even feed 18 times a day. Feeding a baby "on demand" (sometimes referred to as "on cue"), means feeding when the baby shows signs of hunger; feeding this way rather than by the clock helps to maintain milk production and ensure the baby's needs for milk and comfort are being met.[citation needed] However, it may be important to recognize whether a baby is truly hungry, as breastfeeding too frequently may mean the child receives a disproportionately high amount of foremilk, and not enough hindmilk.

"Experienced breastfeeding mothers learn that the sucking patterns and needs of babies vary. While some infants' sucking needs are met primarily during feedings, other babies may need additional sucking at the breast soon after a feeding even though they are not really hungry. Babies may also nurse when they are lonely, frightened or in pain."

"Comforting and meeting sucking needs at the breast is nature's original design. Pacifiers (dummies, soothers) are a substitute for the mother when she can't be available. Other reasons to pacify a baby primarily at the breast include superior oral-facial development, prolonged lactational amenorrhea, avoidance of n****e confusion and stimulation of an adequate milk supply to ensure higher rates of breastfeeding success."

Most US states now have laws that allow a mother to breastfeed her baby anywhere she is allowed to be. In hospitals, rooming-in care permits the baby to stay with the mother and improves the ease of breastfeeding. Some commercial establishments provide breastfeeding rooms, although laws generally specify that mothers may breastfeed anywhere, without requiring them to go to a special area. Dedicated breastfeeding rooms are generally preferred by women who are expressing milk while away from their baby.


Latching On, Feeding and Positioning
Correct positioning and technique for latching on can prevent n****e soreness and allow the baby to obtain enough milk. The "rooting reflex" is the baby's natural tendency to turn towards the breast with the mouth open wide; mothers sometimes make use of this by gently stroking the baby's cheek or lips with their n****e in order to induce the baby to move into position for a breastfeeding session, then quickly moving baby onto the breast while baby's mouth is wide open. In order to prevent n****e soreness and allow the baby to get enough milk, a large part of the breast and areola need to enter the baby's mouth. To help the baby latch on well, tickle the baby's top lip with the n****e, wait until the baby's mouth opens wide, then bring the baby up towards the n****e quickly, so that the baby has a mouthful of n****e and areola. The n****e should be at the back of the baby's throat, with the baby's tongue lying flat in its mouth. Inverted or flat nipples can be massaged so that the baby will have more to latch onto. Resist the temptation to move towards the baby, as this can lead to poor attachment.

Pain in the n****e or breast is linked to incorrect breastfeeding techniques. Failure to latch on is one of the main reasons for ineffective feeding and can lead to infant health concerns. A 2006 study found that inadequate parental education, incorrect breastfeeding techniques, or both were associated with higher rates of preventable hospital admissions in newborns.

The baby may pull away from the n****e after a few minutes or after a much longer period of time. Normal feeds at the breast can last a few sucks (newborns), from 10 to 20 minutes or even longer (on demand). Sometimes, after the finishing of a breast, the mother may offer the other breast.

While most women breastfeed their child in the cradling position, there are many ways to hold the feeding baby. It depends on the mother and child's comfort and the feeding preference of the baby. Some babies prefer one breast to the other, but the mother should offer both breasts at every nursing with her newborn.

When tandem breastfeeding, the mother is unable to move the baby from one breast to another and comfort can be more of an issue. As tandem breastfeeding brings extra strain to the arms, especially as the babies grow, many mothers of twins recommend the use of more supporting pillows.


Exclusive Breastfeeding
Exclusive breastfeeding is defined as "an infant's consumption of human milk with no supplementation of any type (no water, no juice, no nonhuman milk, and no foods) except for vitamins, minerals, and medications." National and international guidelines recommend that all infants be breastfed exclusively for the first six months of life. Breastfeeding may continue with the addition of appropriate foods, for two years or more. Exclusive breastfeeding has dramatically reduced infant deaths in developing countries by reducing diarrhea and infectious diseases. It has also been shown to reduce HIV transmission from mother to child, compared to mixed feeding.

Exclusively breastfed infants feed anywhere from 6 to 14 times a day. Newborns consume from 30 to 90 ml (1 to 3 US fluid ounces) per feed. After the age of four weeks, babies consume about 120ml (4 US fluid ounces) per feed. Each baby is different, but as it grows the amount will increase. It is important to recognize the baby's hunger signs. It is assumed that the baby knows how much milk it needs and it is therefore advised that the baby should dictate the number, frequency, and length of each feed. The supply of milk from the breast is determined by the number and length of these feeds or the amount of milk expressed. The birth weight of the baby may affect its feeding habits, and mothers may be influenced by what they perceive its requirements to be. For example, a baby born small for gestational age may lead a mother to believe that her child needs to feed more than if it larger; they should, however, go by the demands of the baby rather than what they feel is necessary.

While it can be hard to measure how much food a breastfed baby consumes, babies normally feed to meet their own requirements. Babies that fail to eat enough may exhibit symptoms of failure to thrive. If necessary, it is possible to estimate feeding from wet and soiled nappies (diapers): 8 wet cloth or 5–6 wet disposable, and 2–5 soiled per 24 hours suggests an acceptable amount of input for newborns older than 5–6 days old. After 2–3 months, stool frequency is a less accurate measure of adequate input as some normal infants may go up to 10 days between stools. Babies can also be weighed before and after feeds.


Expressing Breastmilk
When direct breastfeeding is not possible, a mother can express (artificially remove and store) her milk. With manual massage or using a breast pump, a woman can express her milk and keep it in freezer storage bags, a supplemental nursing system, or a bottle ready for use. Breast milk may be kept at room temperature for up to six hours[citation needed], refrigerated for up to eight days or frozen for up to four to six months. Research suggests that the antioxidant activity in expressed breast milk decreases over time but it still remains at higher levels than in infant formula.

Expressing breast milk can maintain a mother's milk supply when she and her child are apart. If a sick baby is unable to feed, expressed milk can be fed through a nasogastric tube.

Expressed milk can also be used when a mother is having trouble breastfeeding, such as when a newborn causes grazing and bruising. If an older baby bites the n****e, the mother's reaction - a jump and a cry of pain - is usually enough to discourage the child from biting again.

"Exclusively expressing", "exclusively pumping" and "EPing" are terms for a mother who feeds her baby exclusively on her breastmilk while not physically breastfeeding. This may arise because her baby is unable or unwilling to latch on to the breast. With good pumping habits, particularly in the first 12 weeks when the milk supply is being established, it is possible to produce enough milk to feed the baby for as long as the mother wishes.

It is generally advised to delay using a bottle to feed expressed breast milk until the baby is 4–6 weeks old and is good at sucking directly from the breast. As sucking from a bottle takes less effort, babies can lose their desire to suck from the breast. This is called nursing strike or n****e confusion. To avoid this when feeding expressed breast milk (EBM) before 4–6 weeks of age, it is recommended that breast milk be given by other means such as feeding spoons or feeding cups. Also, EBM should be given by someone other than the breastfeeding mother (or wet nurse), so that the baby can learn to associate direct feeding with the mother (or wet nurse) and associate bottle feeding with other people.[citation needed]

Some women donate their expressed breast milk (EBM) to others, either directly or through a milk bank. Though historically the use of wet nurses was common, some women dislike the idea of feeding their own child with another woman's milk; others appreciate being able to give their baby the benefits of breast milk. Feeding expressed breast milk—either from donors or the baby's own mother—is the feeding method of choice for premature babies. The transmission of some viral diseases through breastfeeding can be prevented by expressing breast milk and subjecting it to Holder pasteurisation.


Mixed Feelings
Predominant or mixed breastfeeding means feeding breast milk along with infant formula, baby food and even water, depending on the age of the child. Babies feed differently with artificial teats than from a breast. With the breast, the infant's tongue massages the milk out rather than sucking. With an artificial teat, an infant will suck as long as there is milk flowing and it is easy to overfeed with a bottle. Since the flow is constant, and the baby does not have to elicit a letdown, mixing breastfeeding and bottle-feeding (or using a pacifier) before the baby is used to feeding from its mother, can result in the infant preferring the bottle to the breast. Some mothers supplement feed with a small syringe or flexible cup to reduce the risk of artificial n****e preference. When using a bottle it is important to use the slowest flow the baby will accept (and not move up to a faster flow just because the baby is getting older) and feed in a paced manner. The baby should sit almost upright and the bottle should be only tipped slightly to allow for a little bit of milk to pass to the baby. Bottle feeding should take as long as breastfeeding does. Faster feeding can easily result in overfeeding.


Tandem Breastfeeding
Feeding two children at the same time is called tandem breastfeeding The most common reason for tandem breastfeeding is the birth of twins, although women with closely spaced children can and do continue to nurse the older as well as the younger. As the appetite and feeding habits of each baby may not be the same, this could mean feeding each according to their own individual needs, and can also include breastfeeding them together, one on each breast.

In cases of triplets or more, it is a challenge for a mother to organize feeding around the appetites of all the babies. While breasts can respond to the demand and produce large quantities of milk, it is common for women to use alternatives. However, some mothers have been able to breastfeed triplets successfully.

Tandem breastfeeding may also occur when a woman has a baby while breastfeeding an older child. During the late stages of pregnancy the milk will change to colostrum, and some older nurslings will continue to feed even with this change, while others may wean due to the change in taste or drop in supply. Feeding a child while being pregnant with another can also be considered a form of tandem feeding for the nursing mother, as she also provides the nutrition for two.


Duration of Breastfeeding
In the United States a study published by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention found that 75 percent of mothers began breastfeeding. However, by 6 months, the rate fell to 43% and was just 22% after a year. Breastfeeding rates vary across the country, from nearly 90 percent initiating breastfeeding in Utah to 52.5 percent in Mississippi. The health care law now requires large employers to provide breast-feeding mothers with breaks and a private space—not a toilet—to express milk.


Extended Breast-feeding
Extended breast-feeding was at one time a very common practice worldwide. Dr. Martin Stein wrote in Parental Concerns about Extended Breastfeeding in a Toddler that “The discussion about extended nursing is similar to that of co-sleeping. They are both characteristics of child rearing that are closely linked to time and place. In most cultures before the 20th century, both practices were the norm. Changes in social, economical, and sexual expectations altered our views of the meaning of breastfeeding and bed sharing.” Extended breastfeeding was encouraged in Ancient Greek, Hebrew, and Muslim cultures. The Koran, the Talmud, and the writings of Aristotle all recommend breastfeeding for 2 to 3 years. In Breastfeeding Beyond 6 Months: Mothers' Perceptions of the Negative and Positive Consequences, Dr. S. B. Reamer states that “Over the past 100 years of American history, the acceptance of unrestricted nursing decreased and the age acceptable for weaning dropped dramatically, until the average weaning age was 3 months in the 1970's.” The current average weaning age in America is 12 months.

-- Global Practices: While breastfeeding beyond 1 year of age is considered extended breastfeeding in the United States,[97] experts say that the average age of weaning worldwide is 4 years.[96] In Guinea-Bissau, West Africa, the average length of breastfeeding is 22.6 months [98] and in India, mothers commonly breastfeed their children until 3 to 4 years of age. Stein says that “In India, women often wean their 3 or 4-year-old by putting the juice of a bitter gourd or melon on their nipples.” Although the American Academy of Pediatrics stated in 1997 that “It is recommended that breastfeeding continue for at least 12 months, and thereafter as mutually desired”, the World Health Organization recommends breastfeeding for at least 2 years.

-- Western Practices: Elizabeth Baldwin says in Extended Breastfeeding and the Law, that “Because our culture tends to view the breast as sexual, it can be hard for people to realize that breastfeeding is the natural way to nurture children.” In Western countries such as The United States of America, Canada, and Great Britain, extended breastfeeding is a very taboo act. It is difficult to obtain accurate information and statistics about extended breastfeeding in these countries because of the mother's embarrassment. Mothers that nurse longer than the social norm sometimes hide their practices from all but very close family members and friends. This is called “closet nursing”.[99] There are several organizations in place to support mothers that practice extended breastfeeding. These organizations include the International Childbirth Education Association and La Leche League International. In a study published by the Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 24% of mothers nursing past 6 months felt social hostility towards them. This number grew to 42% when mothers were nursing after 1 year of age. Also, 10% of mothers claimed embarrassment when more mobile, verbal toddlers made known in public the fact that they were nursed.

-- Health Effects: Priscilla Colletto stated in Beyond Toddlerhood: The Breastfeeding Relationship Continues, “The adverse health effects of weaning a child before or during toddlerhood are well documented for Third World countries such as Guinea-Bissau, where children who were no longer breastfed at ages 12-35 months had a 3.5 times higher mortality rate than did their peers who continued to breastfeed.” Dr. Laurence Grummer-Strawn observed that breastfeeding is protective against diarrheal diseases and other infections, breastfed children aged 12 to 36 months in Indonesia have much greater mid-arm circumference than children who have been weaned, and the incidences of malnourishment in breastfed Indonesian children are 3-5% less common than generally encountered in Indonesian clinics. Studies suggest that extended breastfeeding may reduce the chances of otitis media allergies, leukemia, and lymphoma for the toddler, and premenopausal breast cancer in the mother. This is attributed to the fact that the levels of lysozyme, lactoferrin, and secretory IgA are stable and even increase in the breast milk of mothers who are breastfeeding for over 1 year. (Stein 1507). In one study, artificially-fed infants had 2 to 3 times as many episodes of significant illnesses (defined as “otitis media, lower respiratory disease, significant vomiting or diarrhea, and any illness requiring hospital admission”). However, there are also some studied risks involved in extended breastfeeding. Breastfeeding could impair a child's growth if they are not taught to eat other foods as well. Breast milk alone is not enough for children over 6 months of age and some have observed that children that have been breastfed longer than the norm have less of an appetite for added foods. Stein says that “As long as a toddler is eating a variety of grains, vegetables, fruits, and foods or supplements that provide adequate iron and vitamin D, nutrition will be adequate and appropriate growth and development will be ensured.”

-- Psychological Effects: In A Time to Wean by Katherine Dettwyler, it states that “Western, industrialized societies can compensate for some (but not all) of the immunological benefits of breastfeeding with antibiotics, vaccines and improved sanitation. But the physical, cognitive, and emotional needs of the young child persist.” Many children who are breast-fed into their toddler years use the milk as a comforting, bonding moment with their mothers. In a 1974 survey of 152 mothers, 17% said that the security their toddlers obtained through extended breastfeeding helped them become more independent, 14% said that extended breastfeeding created a strong mother-child bond, and 14.6% said that extended breastfeeding strengthened their abilities as a mother. Four mothers said that they felt their child was too dependent and one mother considered her child a poor eater. Dr. Stein said that “A mother in my practice who breastfed 2 children until 2 years of age explained that she would slowdown and giver her undivided attention to her child several times each day when breastfeeding. Her children knew that she always had time for those moments each day. This time was also important to the mother for relaxing and unwinding....For many nursing toddlers, the breast comes to serve the same function as a favorite blanket or stuffed animal in providing comfort and a sense of security.” One issue with extended breastfeeding is the ability of the mother and the child to separate. Some say that the desire for extended breastfeeding comes from the mother's inability to let go of “her baby”. Baldwin refutes this statement, saying that the child is the one who chooses when they are weaned, as it is very difficult to force a child to breastfeed.

-- Legal Issues: There have been several cases where children have been taken away from their mother's care because the courts found the mother's extended breastfeeding to be inappropriate. In 1992, a New York State mother lost custody of her child for a year. She was still breastfeeding the child at age 3 and had reported experiences of sexual arousal while breastfeeding the child. The authorities took the child from the home in the fear that the mother might sexually abuse the child. Later, the social service agency that took over the case said that there was more to the case than could be released to the press due to confidentiality laws [96] In 2000, an Illinois child was removed from the mother's care after a judge ruled that the child might suffer emotional damage because of not being weaned. The child was later returned to the mother and the judge vacated the finding of neglect. A social service agency in Colorado removed a 5-year-old child from the mother, because she was still breastfeeding, but the court ordered the child returned to its family immediately.


Shared Breastfeeding
It used to be common worldwide, and still is in developing nations such as those in Africa, for more than one woman to breastfeed a child. Shared breastfeeding is a risk factor for HIV infection in infants. A woman who is engaged to breastfeed another's baby is known as a wet nurse. Islam has codified the relationship between this woman and the infants she nurses, and also between the infants when they grow up, so that milk siblings are considered as blood siblings and cannot marry (mahram). Shared breastfeeding can incur strong negative reactions in the Anglosphere; American feminist activist Jennifer Baumgardner has written about her experiences in New York with this issue.


Weaning
Weaning is the process of introducing the infant to other food and reducing the supply of breast milk. The infant is fully weaned when it no longer receives any breast milk. Most mammals stop producing the enzyme lactase at the end of weaning, and become lactose intolerant. Humans often have a mutation, with frequency depending primarily on ethnic background, that allows the production of lactase throughout life and so can drink milk - usually cow or goat milk - well beyond infancy. In humans, the psychological factors involved in the weaning process are crucial for both mother and infant as issues of closeness and separation are very prominent during this stage.

In the past bromocriptine was in some countries frequently used to reduce the engorgement experienced by many women during weaning. This is now done only in exceptional cases as it causes frequent side effects, offers very little advantage over non-medical management and the possibility of serious side effects can not be ruled out. Other medications such as cabergoline, lisuride or birth control pills may be occasionally used as lactation suppressants.


History of Breastfeeding

For hundreds of thousands of years, humans, like all other mammals, fed their young milk. Before the twentieth century, alternatives to breastfeeding were rare. Attempts in 15th century Europe to use cow or goat milk were not very positive. In the 18th century, flour or cereal mixed with broth were introduced as substitutes for breastfeeding, but this did not have a favorable outcome, either. True commercial infant formulas appeared on the market in the mid 19th Century but their use did not become widespread until after WWII. As the superior qualities of breast milk became better-established in medical literature, breastfeeding rates have increased and countries have enacted measures to protect the rights of infants and mothers to breastfeed.


Sociological Factors With Breastfeeding

Researchers have found several social factors that correlate with differences in initiation, frequency, and duration of breastfeeding practices of mothers. Race, ethnic differences and socioeconomic status and other factors have been shown to affect a mother’s choice whether or not to breastfeed and how long she breastfeeds her child.

Race and culture
Singh et al. also found that African American women are less likely than white women of similar socioeconomic status to breastfeed and Hispanic women are more likely to breastfeed. The Center of Disease Control used information from the National Immunization Survey to determine the proportion of Caucasian and African American children that were ever breast fed. They found that 71.5% of Caucasians had breastfed their child while only 50.1% of African Americans had. At six months of age this fell to 53.9% of Caucasian mothers and 43.2% of African American mothers who were still breastfeeding.[citation needed]


Income
Deborah L. Dee's research found that women and children who qualify for WIC, Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children were among those who were least likely to initiate breastfeeding. Income level can also contribute to women discontinuing breastfeeding early. More highly educated women are more likely to have access to information regarding difficulties with breastfeeding, allowing them to continue breastfeeding through difficulty rather than weaning early. Women in higher status jobs are more likely to have access to a lactation room and suffer less social stigma from having to breastfeed or express breastmilk at work. In addition, women who are unable to take an extended leave from work following the birth of their child are less likely to continue breastfeeding when they return to work.[citation needed]


Other Factors
Other factors they found to have an effect on breastfeeding are “household composition, metropolitan/non-metropolitan residence, parental education, household income or poverty status, neighborhood safety, familial support, maternal physical activity, and household smoking status.”


Breastfeeding in Public


Role of Marketing

Controversy has arisen over the marketing of breast milk vs. formula; particularly how it affects the education of mothers in third world counties and their comprehension (or lack thereof) of the health benefits of breastfeeding. The most famous example being the Nestlé boycott, which arose in the 1970s and continues to be supported by high-profile stars and international groups to this day.

In 1981, the World Health Assembly (WHA) adopted Resolution WHA34.22 which includes the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes.


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The information in this post belongs to Wikipedia. I do not claim to own any of this information, nor am I trying to profit from it.

I apologize for any [ # ] citations that I might have missed.

Drug Safety During Breastfeeding [internet]


Taken from: http://www.babycenter.com/0_drug-safety-during-breastfeeding_8790.bc


Although many medications are safe to use when you're breastfeeding, most drugs will get into your milk to some degree and may even affect your milk supply. To be safe, check with your child's doctor before taking any kind of medication, even over-the-counter drugs.

The information in our chart was compiled and reviewed by Philip Anderson, a pharmacist and the editor of LactMed, the U.S. National Library of Medicine's drugs and lactation database. If you have more questions about how a drug you're taking might affect your breast milk or your baby, check the LactMed database online.


[**You can also click the link at the top of this post for a huge long chart of drugs and medications, within the original article, and how they affect breastfeeding and/or breastmilk.]


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- Drugs and Breastfeeding (lots of links!)
- Breastfeeding Online (lots of links!)

Reserved.