Massachusetts Medical Center in the late 1970s by Jon Kabat-Zinn. At the
hospital's Stress Reduction Clinic, Kabat-Zinn originally developed
mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) to treat those suffering from
chronic pain (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Due to the early success of MBSR, other
mindfulness therapies emerged and the application of mindfulness
expanded to other symptoms and disorders, including depression, anxiety,
borderline personality disorder, cancer side-effects, eating disorders,
and sexual dysfunction (Althof, 2010; Kabat-Zinn et al., 1992;
Kristeller & Hallett, 1999; Linehan, 1993; Segal, Williams &
Teasdale, 2002; Speca, Carlson, Goodey, & Angen, 2000). Several of
the most widely used mindfulness therapies have received increasing
empirical support for their efficacy, such as Acceptance and Commitment
Therapy (ACT; Hayes, Luoma, Bond, Masuda, & Lillis, 2006; Juarisco,
Forman, & Herbert, 2010; Ost, 2008; Twohig et al., 2010),
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT; Foley, Baillie, Huxter,
Price, & Sinclair, 2010; Hoffman, Sawyer, Witt, & Oh, 2010;
Segal et al., 2010; Williams, Russell, & Russell, 200 cool , and
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT; Kleinn, Kroger, & Kosfelder,
2010; Lynch, Trost, Salsman & Linehan, 2007; Ost, 200 cool .
Mindfulness-based treatments are helping people overcome
debilitating disorders and behaviors. The practice of mindfulness has
reached such a level of acceptance in the United States that it is even
being used in the public school system (Biegel & Brown, 2011). Aware
that the term mindfulness is associated with Buddhism, however, many
Christians are cautious or resistant to mindfulness practice. As such,
there is confusion about the nature and practice of mindfulness in
psychology and there are questions about its compatibility with
Christianity. Christian therapists and consumers, as well as the Church,
need a well-informed understanding of the mindfulness practiced in the
field of psychology. Therapists and clients want to ensure they are
using the most effective treatments available, while not jeopardizing
Christian values and Biblical principles.
A Christian model of mindfulness we have used to treat anxiety
disorders, depression, compulsive behaviors, life transitions,
relational difficulties, and sexual dysfunction will be presented. It
will be demonstrated that the underlying principles of mindfulness are
not only compatible with Christianity but also can enhance the Christian
spiritual journey and increase value-based behavior.
Defining Mindfulness
In the literature one will not find a singular definition of
mindfulness; however, most accepted definitions include the principles
of presence of mind, acceptance, and non-judgmental detachment. In this
article mindfulness is defined as the process of keeping one's mind
in the present moment, while staying non-judgmentally detached from
potentially destructive thoughts and feelings.
The Mindfulness of Buddhism
The term mindfulness comes from Buddhist tradition. This discipline
of mindfulness, which is a form of meditation, emphasizes attentiveness
to activities of the body, sensations and feelings, and mental
activities. One of the most popular mindfulness practices is the breath
meditation, where the practitioner attends solely to his or her breath
(Rahula, 1959).
Mindfulness meditations, in a Buddhist context, allow for
detachment from sensory experience and the realization of enlightenment
or Nirvana. Accordingly, the individual is freed from the
"thirst" of the pleasure senses and sees that the idea of self
or soul is a mere illusion. Consequently, the enlightened Buddhist is
free from worries and selfish self-protective behaviors. Such an
individual lives in the present moment and acquires an internal
equanimity.
In Buddhism the notion of 'self as an illusion' is core
to its philosophical system. According to the Buddhist, the belief of an
"I" behind sensory experience is responsible for much of the
evil in the world. "According to the teaching of the Buddha, the
idea of self is an imaginary, false belief which has no corresponding
reality, and it produces harmful thoughts of 'me' and
'mine', selfish desire, craving, attachment, hatred, ill-will,
conceit, pride, egoism, and other defilements, impurities and
problems" (Rahula, 1959, p. 51).
Mindfulness in Psychology
This presupposition of 'self as an illusion' within
Buddhist philosophy is not maintained within the psychological practice
of mindfulness. The developers of mindfulness-based treatments speak of
the "wise mind" and the "I" behind sensory
experience (Linehan, 1993; Luoma, Hayes, & Walser, 2007). The
importance of solidifying and strengthening a sense of self is
accentuated, which is diametrically opposed to the goal and function of
mindfulness in Buddhism. Instead of trying to see the impermanence of
self, as in Buddhism, most mindfulness-based treatments consider the
recognition and anchoring of self to be foundational.
At the same time mindfulness in psychology is interested in
realizing some of the same goals as the mindfulness of Buddhism. The
practitioner develops the ability to keep consciousness more in the
present moment and learns how to accept that which is beyond his or her
control. And a neutral stance towards internal experience is encouraged.
Despite these commonalities, the pioneers of mindfulness in
psychology emphasized that mindfulness was removed from its Buddhist
context and was not dependent on any religious or philosophical
worldview. Kabat-Zinn states, "In fact one of its major strengths
is that it is not dependent on any belief system or ideology, so its
benefits are therefore accessible for anyone to test for him or
herself" (1990, p. 12).
Mindfulness for the Christian
Many Christians will rightly observe the commonalities, in terms of
principles and practice, between mindfulness-based treatments and the
mindfulness of Buddhism. Both utilize the breath meditation, for
example. While this is true, Christians need to evaluate the adopted
principles and practices of mindfulness from a Christian perspective
rather than being distracted by its historical roots. Christians are
free to extract and employ a truthful principle while not embracing the
religious or philosophical tradition to which it is attached. Scripture
states that God knows and looks at the heart of the individual (1 Sam.
16:7). God has gifted humans with higher cognitive capacities to assign
meaning and intention to activities. Both a Buddhist and a Christian can
be engaged in a breath meditation, where he or she is following and
focusing solely on the breath. Each assigns a different meaning to the
same exercise. The Buddhist is reminded of the self being an illusion.
The Christian, on the other hand, reflects on the breath of life God has
gifted and His loving presence. Thus, the intention of the practitioner
can change the meaning and function of the same mindfulness exercise. In
both cases research suggests that anxiety and stress levels will
decrease (Hoffman et al. 2010; Ost, 2008; Kabat-Zinn et al., 1992).
Beyond the physiological, however, the Christian can use the exercise to
draw near to God while the Buddhist uses the practice to embrace the
impermanence of life.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rf2OVW-8OdY
Tan (2011), in a recent article, reviewed mindfulness-based
therapies from a Christian perspective, highlighting areas of
compatibility and caution. In terms of caution, he emphasized the
importance of contextualizing mindfulness interventions within the
Christian contemplative tradition. As such, the Christian recognizes the
sacredness of the present moment and surrenders his or her thoughts and
feelings to God rather than taking a purely passive stance toward
internal sensations. Christians should also recognize that mindfulness
therapies may stress value-based living but these values can be
secularly based rather than biblically based. Additionally, he pointed
out that the goal of present-moment living in mindfulness should be
balanced with the Christian hope of what is to come.
In terms of compatibility, Tan (2011) argued that mindfulness-based
treatments could be helpful to Christian clients, especially those who
have an obsessive or ruminative thinking style. He also pointed out that
mindfulness therapies encourage a compassionate, loving disposition
towards self and others and focus on value-based behaviors; goals that
are consistent with the Christian faith.
We contend that mindfulness principles are not only compatible with
Christianity but they also can empower the Christian to more fully live
out deeply held values and beliefs. The client is guided into a new
relationship with internal sensations, where he or she is less
controlled by intense feeling states. Less controlled by the immediate
internal experience, the individual is better equipped to pursue core
values and live out his or her faith.
A Christian Model of Mindfulness
Three Pillars. The proposed model of mindfulness is supported by
three pillars: Presence of Mind, Acceptance, and Internal Observation.
These three pillars create a platform for a strengthened sense of self
and increased value-based behavior.
Presence of Mind. A primary feature of mindfulness is presence of
mind. Throughout the day people are mentally adrift. Life activities are
performed in a robotic fashion. The body is there, going through the
motions, but the mind is somewhere else. The mind is anticipating the
next event or ruminating about the past or dreaming of a different
reality.
Neuroscientists describe two forms of experiencing a sense of self
known as "self-referencing": narrative focus and experiential
focus. Through brain imaging distinct neural patterns have been
identified with each form of self-referencing (Farb et al., 2007). When
the individual leaves the present moment and engages in mental
reflection he or she enters the narrative focus. This is the place where
memories are pondered and plans are made. While the narrative focus is
essential to being a human person it is also the mental space where
psychological symptoms are exacerbated and disorders strengthened. The
anxious person, for example, gets stuck in an anxious loop where
thoughts, feelings, and physiology build in intensity and feed off each
other. The person is flooded with internal sensations that are
frequently from the past or entirely separate from the present moment.
Similarly, depression is perpetuated by a pattern of going away in the
mind. The individual, caught in a one-person psychological system,
enters a negative reflective state that only reinforces the depressed
mood and sense of hopelessness.
In contrast to the narrative focus is the brain pathway activated
by presence of mind exercises, which is called the experiential focus
(Farb et al., 2007). Mindfulness meditation, which activates this
here-and-now experience of self, can interrupt and shift negative
ruminative processes that feed psychological disorders. In essence,
mindfulness exercises can function as a reset button in the brain
releasing the individual from the negative feedback loop.
Mindfulness has the capacity to increase the individual's
sense of aliveness and pleasure in living. Langer and Moldoveanu (2000)
argue that mindfulness is "best understood as the process of
drawing novel distinctions" (p. 1). In each moment there are new
things to discover which are usually missed because the mind is not
present. When the mind is fully present the color of life is enhanced
and each moment is new, holding potential discoveries. This is not
unlike the child with awestruck sensibilities. A baby will stare with
amazement at a wet leaf reflecting light. In contrast, the nearby adult
may treat the same leaf with boredom. He or she calls up a cognitive
template entitled, "leaf with dew" and assumes that it is a
known and ordinary experience. This gives the individual permission to
mentally check out. Adults fail to see how each moment is unique and
that an enlivening sensory experience awaits those with a wakeful mind.
Acceptance. Mindfulness plays a primary role in the current
"third wave" of behaviorism (Hayes et al., 2006). The
"third wave", as seen in ACT and other mindfulness-based
treatments, deemphasizes mastery of one's internal experience and
embraces the principles of non-resistance and the acceptance of unwanted
thoughts and feelings (Forsyth & Eifert, 2007). It is argued that
much of the suffering people endure is not the emotional state of
anxiety or depression by itself, for example, but rather the internal
struggle against these feeling states (Luoma et al., 2007). In fighting
or trying to escape the internal threat or pain, the individual grafts a
new layer of suffering on to his or her experience. By radically
accepting one's experience, the suffering created by the internal
fight is removed.
A second pillar of mindfulness is, therefore, about accepting and
not being self-critical of the thoughts and feelings that enter
consciousness. This does not mean the individual invests in the thought
or feeling or finds it agreeable. Rather, the individual learns how to
let go, accept, and not expend energy managing thoughts, feelings, and
sensations that are beyond his or her control. This is important for two
reasons. First, an internal disposition of acceptance is the quickest
way to diffuse charged thoughts and feelings. Internal sensations are
energized by reactivity. The more one fights and struggles the more
powerful the given thought or feeling becomes. By not engaging in a
tug-of-war, the fuel line is cut off and the feeling dissipates.
Secondly, through acceptance the person discovers an increased ability
to tolerate a range of emotional states. Instead of being controlled by
powerful affect or engaging in unhealthy suppression, mindfulness skills
allows for internal integration and wholeness.
Internal Observation. The third pillar of mindfulness is that of
internal observation. There is a part of oneself that is separate from
internal sensations. Thoughts, feelings, and physiology can be watched.
And the individual becomes empowered when he or she learns how to
observe a feeling rather than be the feeling. The internal sensation
does not go away but there is a keen sense that the thought or feeling
is not in control and only represents a part of the individual's
experience. With this comes a new internal freedom. The individual
becomes less reactionary and is able to make a conscious choice in how
to respond to internal states. It is the difference between "I am
having the feeling of anxiety" which implies distance between
one's center and the feeling state, and "I am anxious."
In the latter the anxiety defines the person and implies that there is
no separation between one's center and the emotion.
Self, clusters, and Fusion
At the center of one's internal experience is Self. There is
an "I" that sits behind and can observe internal experience.
Surrounding and interacting with Self are three spheres of influence:
feelings, thoughts, and physiology. Throughout the day each of these
spheres is actively bringing information to consciousness. Thoughts and
feelings and physiology are aspects of one's person but these
internal sensations do not define Self. There is a part of self that is
capable of being detached from inner experience, where thoughts,
feelings, and physical sensations are transcended. ACT and DBT, both
mindfulness-based therapies, refer to this part of self as the
"wise mind" or "observing self" (Linehan, 1993;
Luoma et al., 2007).
Ideally there is space between one's center and the
surrounding spheres. This allows for psychological freedom and
flexibility and the ability to pursue deeply held values. Self is often
threatened, however, as thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations do
not operate in isolation. Instead they tend to form clusters where no
clear division between the spheres can be made. For example, when
someone is anxious he or she will have anxious thoughts, the
physiological sensation of anxiety, and the emotional experience of
fear. The activation of one sphere, such as rapid heartbeat, sparks the
activation of the other two spheres which in turn encourages the
increased activation of the original spheres and the cycle continues.
(If this escalation continues the individual may well experience a panic
attack). When a cluster is highly charged the person is in danger of
losing his or her center.
This highlights the problem of fusion, which is a term borrowed
from ACT. Fusion occurs when one or more clusters collapse on Self. With
fusion the person becomes the feeling. At this point the anxious
individual becomes the anxiety and Self is temporarily held captive. The
feeling or cluster will guide behavior instead of an anchored self. The
feeling will tell the person what he or she can and cannot do. During
fusion one's life is delegated to a powerful feeling state and
choices are made that often conflict with deeply held values, beliefs,
and goals.
It is important to note that not all fusion is negative, such as
romantic intimacy between a husband and wife. For a period of time they
both are gladly taken over by an emotional experience (fusion). This
type of fusion is life giving and does not conflict with the Biblical
principle of marital intimacy.
Mindfulness is an antidote to negative fusion. By practicing the
three pillars (Presence of Mind, Acceptance, and Internal Observation)
space between one's center and the surrounding spheres is created
and maintained. In addition, the application of these principles diffuse
or deenergize a charged cluster, making fusion less likely to occur.
The combined effect of an anchored center and less fusion is an
increased ability to pursue deeply held values. Clients are taken
through a systematic process of identifying and clarifying core values.
For the Christian client these values are Biblically based rather than
generated solely from personal preference. Values in the proposed model
are used in two primary ways. First, the client is encouraged to
regularly invest in deeply held values as a lifestyle. Secondly, core
values are used in the counterconditioning process. When the individual
is prone to fusion these values act as lamp posts or anchors. When a
client begins to feel angry or anxious, for example, the feeling becomes
a reminder to move toward a previously defined value. The energy from
the potentially destructive thought or feeling is used to move toward a
core value or belief.
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
Developing Mindfulness and the Two-Screen Method
Developing Mindfulness. The proposed model requires the development
of mindfulness skills. We developed an eight-week mindfulness program,
which will be briefly described. The mindfulness exercises fall into
three main categories: breath meditation, daily activities with
mindfulness, and observing internal sensations. In terms of a breath
meditation, which is foundational to mindfulness development, we use a
variation of Focused Breathing Awareness (FBA). The practitioner places
his or her attention on the breath following the inhale and exhale for a
concentrated period of time. As the mind wanders the individual
redirects focus back to the breath. The participant is practicing
present-moment awareness and is learning how to observe an internal
sensation. In addition, there is an appreciation for the breath of life
(Gen 2:7) and an openness to experiencing God's loving presence.
Clients are also assigned specific daily activities, such as
driving or washing dishes, where they apply mindfulness skills. For the
prescribed time, the practitioner uses all four senses to stay in the
moment and attune to the sensory experience of what is normally a
routine activity. For example, the dishwasher notices the reflection of
light off the plates, hears the running water, notices the pressure on
the hands with each movement, and takes in the smell of the soap.
The third area involves watching internal sensations. As noted
earlier, this practice begins with clients learning how to observe the
internal sensation of breathing (FBA). Once proficiency is established
with FBA, clients are given assignments where they monitor, rate, and
observe particular feelings with acceptance and neutrality.
The Two-screen Method. We developed the Two-Screen Method (TSM),
which uses a simple image to help clients apply the mindfulness model to
their life experiences.
Each person has a pair of physical eyes and a pair of internal
eyes. Imagine the internal eyes being housed in a home theatre system
with two screens (see Figure 1). On the forward looking wall is the
front screen. Projected on this screen are life-giving thoughts and
feelings. The front screen holds the present moment, as well as images
of what offers meaning and purpose in life. To live a life of joy,
peace, and freedom the individual wants to stay focused on the front
screen. However, each person has to contend with a side screen. This is
the place where threats, fears, and potentially destructive thoughts and
feelings are displayed. When the side screen is activated the person is
tempted to watch it, taking his or her eyes off the front screen. If the
person watches the side screen too long he or she will become ensnared
(fusion) and will have difficulty rotating back to the front screen.
The proposed mindfulness model helps clients establish the ideal
relationship with the side screen and provides tools to stay more
connected to the front screen. Clients are encouraged to accept (or not
fight) the side screen projections, such as anxious thoughts and
feelings, while not watching them, which would be akin to negative
rumination. Practitioners learn to keep their mind in the present moment
and stay engaged with the meaningful images on the front screen. Forward
focus is maintained despite the aversive thoughts and feelings appearing
in one's peripheral vision (side screen).
The two-screen image offers clients a simple way to understand and
apply the mindfulness skills they are learning. In the moment, thoughts
and feelings can be understood and organized in terms of a front screen
and side screen. Equipped with an image to structure their experience,
clients are able to relate to internal sensations in a way that promotes
psychological freedom and value-based action. The two screen image
allows clients to find the internal space between negative rumination
(watching the side screen) and suppression, where there is an unhealthy
attempt to block out threatening thoughts and feelings.
Uniqueness of Model and Integrative Qualities
It is important to highlight the four ways the proposed mindfulness
model is unique and integrative in terms of the Christian faith. First,
as Tan (2011) pointed out, the principle of acceptance should be applied
in a Christian context. The application of internal acceptance carries a
layer of spiritual surrender, where thoughts and feelings on the side
screen are released into God's care. Secondly, in the proposed
model clients are utilizing values on two levels. Similar to ACT clients
identify inherent values that are intrinsically motivating. On a second
level, the current model also encourages clients to move towards
Biblical values rather than relying on relativistic or humanistic ones.
Thirdly, we have created a method (TSM) that helps people structure
their internal worlds and apply mindfulness through the use of a simple
image: the two screens. Lastly, the mindfulness exercises used in the
model are explicitly consistent with Christianity and rooted in the
Christian contemplative tradition, such as attuning to God's
presence and appreciating the sacredness of the present moment.
Overall, the model is designed to support and enrich the Christian
spiritual journey. With presence of mind skills Christians have an
increased capacity to be aware of God's presence and leading (Ps.
46:10). Mindfulness skills can also help Christians become more aware of
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