Discrimination and Internalized Oppression of Bisexual Males
D. Tom Brooks
PSY 5201 – Integrated Project MS in Psy
Dr Loren Faibisch
June 13, 2014
Despite the various influences on society, and the diverse ethnic background of a populace, cultures thrive on homogeneity. The relative concept of normal is based on a series of unwritten rules of expectations for individuals to behave. One basic expectation is that of gender identity and biological imperative. The concept that men are attracted to women and women are to men is biologically ingrained for procreation purposes. Romantic encounters are expected among these pairings. Conversely, when individuals are attracted to individuals of the same gender or both genders, societal repercussions are often difficult to endure. The concept of homosexuality is not new, however. Evidence exists of men as a couple as early as 2400 BCE in the form of a shared tomb for Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum (Rice, 1999). In recent years, the group of individuals interested either romantically, sexually, or both with members beyond the opposite gender is referred to as the Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual group. Transgenders are also added to this group to become the LGBT community. This group has become increasingly open in American culture within the past several decades. This increase in cultural awareness does not translate into acceptance.
As outliers on what is often assumed to be normal in a societal construct, LGBT members are subject to discrimination. Such can come from a form of neglect, abuse, bullying, verbal or physical attacks, and the heterosexist nature of society (Frost & Meyer, 2009). Documentation and research exists to support that LGBT members often endure higher rates of negative attention. One of the primary environments for this issue is in the teens and school environments (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010). Those that do not conform into the heterosexist expectation are ostracized. LGBT members do often suffer as much or even more through self-depreciation and internalized abuse. Both external and internalized oppression creates issues with self-image and negative social adaptations in individuals. This proposal is to use a qualitative study on the formation of these internalized oppressions and measure the level of social impediment because of said internalized oppressions. Understanding both the creation of and the persistence of such issues, professionals can begin to assist LGBT patients in undoing the damage of these poor social adaptations.
Using the information provided in the literature review, a baseline of previous studies can be discerned. From there, a series of qualitative interviews focused on the bisexual male portion of that community will address some of the concerns with both oppression and heterosexism. Some issues to be aware of include microaggressions, social support, assumptions, and political viewpoints from professionals. The goal of which will be to ascertain the levels of oppression the individual feels, both externally and internally, and determine what escape strategies are used. From this information, patterns will be sought to find both common and viable forms of safety for bisexual males in an environment not conducive to the LGBT community.
Literature Review
School Environment
One of the earliest social environments individuals take part in is school. American culture is a heavily heterosexist culture, with examples extending into preschool with examples of gender identity being provided to young children. One definition of gender identity is the set of beliefs concerning what it means to be male or female both personally and socially. Another is one’s sens of self as male, female, or transgender (APA Council of Representatives, 2011). Gender identity is composed of multiple factors including membership knowledge, gender typicality, pressure to conform, intergroup bias, and gender contentedness (Toomey, Ryan, Diaz, Card, & Russell, 2010). Individuals that do not accept one or more of these aspects can be labeled as outcasts in a societal construct. This view of non-conformity changes as individuals mature. By middle childhood, individuals can differentiate behaviors based on sex and form an abstract concept of the self in gender identity. By adolescence, the intense social demands create a heightened awareness of expected roles, and when individuals do not conform (Toomey, Ryan, Diaz, Card, & Russell, 2010). One study concluded that adolescents’ non-conformity to gender identity was fully mediated by experiences of victimization, meaning the less one conformed to expected roles, the more that individual was subject to abuse and discrimination (Toomey, Ryan, Diaz, Card, & Russell, 2010).
As students achieve adolescence, social orders and groups become increasingly important. As in any social order, a hierarchy forms. According to Erik Erikson’s developmental model, the ages of adolescence from 12 to 18 years are exemplified by the developmental crisis of social relationships. At this age, teens seek to develop a sense of self and personal identity (Cherry, 2014). As societal outliers, LGBT members become ostracized and outcast in most schools. Most of American society including budding school social groups have a heterosexist format, meaning that they assume students are not included in LGBT. This idea is based on attitudes and ideologies present in schools, and exemplified by privilege one group over another (Chesir-Teran & Hughes, 2009). Specifically, the disadvantage of LGBT in relation to heterosexual groups. Through the compliation of individual accounts, data has shown a pattern of discrimination and abuse ranging from verbal and physical abuse to overt discrimination. This data suggests that through either invisibility of LGBT support, or because of hostility towards this group, members of this community can expect discrimination and abuse (Chesir-Teran & Hughes, 2009). One study carefully balanced the presence and absence of programs designed to reach out and aid the LGBT community. These programs create an environment that promotes a more inclusive situation for the community, and without such abuse is rampant. “For LGBTQ students the interralationships among policies, programs, and social normas as they relate to heterosexism have the potential to profoundly influence academic experiences and developmental outcomes” (Chesir-Teran & Hughes, 2009). The inverse is also true. Without these programs, LGBT members face poor social expectations, abuse, maltreatment from both staff and peers, and creates a negative environment that has long-lasting effects.
Further research supports that harassment that is of a more direct nature occurs in areas away from teachers and authority, further supporting the formation of social groups and discrimination simultaneously. This environment is not limited to classrooms, with abuse and harassment being reported in unmonitored areas such as hallways, locker rooms, and the outer areas of campus as classes begin or end for the day (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010). This trend increases exponentially depending on how outspoken an individual is of being LGBT. Those that exemplify greater non-conformity to societal gender roles experience increased victimization with particular focus on transgender individuals. The greater the disparity between gender role and behavior, the higher the level of victimization (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010).Harassment can be physical such as abuse, or simply implied through pressure to conform at least in public with what identity the individual is assumed to fill. This pressure to ‘pass for normal’ supports the heterosexism in society, and can create psychological issues for the individual including depression (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010). This situation persists even in environments where support systems and outreach programs exist. However, in schools that had such programs, members of LGBT communities including the transgenders felt safer and higher rates of graduation with fewer rates of psychosocial detriment (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010).
Human nature is to seek pleasure and avoid pain. As such, the natural tendency is to either avoid or escape situations where an individual is victimized or abused regardless of emotional, physical, or both forms of abuse. LGBT individuals are documented to face both forms of abuse not only in school, but also at home. This pervasive barrage of abuse creates another issue. One study of homeless youths added in the identifier for either heterosexual or lesbian, gay, or bisexual. In that study, adolescents ran away from home at nearly double the rate as heterosexual individuals (Cochran, Stewart, Ginzler, & Cauce, 2002). The listed reasons for this decision were family conflict, desire for freedom, and difficulties with a family member. The study also noted the desire to escape physical abuse, and the presence of alcohol abuse in the home. In the case of LGBT individuals, the latter two reasons were far more likely to be because of the sexual identity of the youth (Cochran, Stewart, Ginzler, & Cauce, 2002). Once homeless, the rates of victimization and sexual victimization become much higher, as individuals are more reliant on whatever methods are available to survive.
Psychological Result
Through the formative years of childhood and adolescence, LGBT individuals endure the heterosexism of school, society, and in many cases home as well. This persistent issue can create internalized homophobia, or negative social attitudes towards non-conforming gender identity individuals by that same individual (Frost & Meyer, 2009). This situation can create multiple psychological issues for an individual including rejection of sexual orientation, and conflict between same-sex affection or desire and the sexual conformity of the person. This conflict has a negative effect on mental health, well being, and how he or she sees themselves (Frost & Meyer, 2009). The resulting feelings of anxiety, shame and devaluation of LGBT individuals creates further complications. Individuals with this internalized homophobia or internalized oppression most often exhibit these conflicts in interpersonal relationships. The internal conflict with sexual orientation and social expectation can manifest as ambivalence, relational conflict, and misunderstandings. Such furthers the stigma that LGBT members are not capable of stable, loving relationships (Frost & Meyer, 2009).
When considering gender role identity, and the social pressure of becoming a man, many men are faced with conflicting information. Sexual minority men are in a society that does not support that gender identity, and are given information on how to be a man based on heterosexist views. Such influences sexual minority men, and the pervasive attitudes about being either gay or bisexual (Szymanski & Carr, 200 cool . The disparity between what society considers a man and the identity of a gay or bisexual man inevitably creates conflict and psychosocial distress. The cultural devaluation, personal restriction, and violation of self or others creates the gender role conflict for men seeking an identity. The fear of femininity in men’s lives produces aspects such as restrictive emotionality, obsession with success and achievement, restricted affectionate behavior, and control, power, and competition issues (Szymanski & Carr, 200 cool . These aspects are the issue gender role conflict has created, but the symptoms are more subtle. Commonly, the symptoms include depression, emotional distress, anger, loneliness, anxiety, substance abuse, interpersonal problems, and conduct problems (Szymanski & Carr, 200 cool .
In a related study, sexual minority men emphasized that the gender role of masculinity was very important to them. Mor than half of participants indicated that masculinity was a priority, three-quarters wished to be more masculine than feminine, and most wanted to be more masculine than they assumed themselves to be (Szymanski & Ikizler, 2013). This study also referenced other studies into the psychological health of men, and discovered gender role conflict was linked to depression in 23 of 26 studies. Additionally, gay and bisexual men are a sexual minority, thus allowing the Minority Stress Theory to apply to their evaluation. Through that theory, aspects of society such as heterosexist stigma, prejudice against LGBT, and discrimination create a hostile and stressful social environment with compounds internalized oppression (Szymanski & Ikizler, 2013). Studies into the particular stressors included over half having been referred to as heterosexist slurs, and been treated unfairly by coworkers. The same level of participants also reported hearing sexist slurs from family members, and with approximately a third of the sample being openly rejected for his sexual orientation. Nearly half the sample reported being discriminated against by service personnel (Szymanski & Ikizler, 2013). In some states, this practice has become legal, further empowering the discrimination of LGBT individuals based on religious freedom.
One unfortunate issue with depression is the aspect of suicidal ideology. The risk of committing suicide is increased by social or personal stress, isolation, and discrimination. For sexual minority men, this can be particularly oppressive in a classicly hyper-masculine environment, such as the armed forces. Heterosexism and gender are common themes in training and military life. In America, a law was enforced for some time called “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” wherein an individual was legally protected to refrain from giving any details about his or her sexual orientation. Such prevented any form of coming out within the military, and left servicemen and women as more generalized. Such also supported the heterosexist environment of military life. That law was rescinded in 2011, only to create a new awareness of LGBT servicemen. The sexually stigmatized environment of the armed forces only heightens the risk of psychological distress and suicide for these individuals. One report cites similar stressors as other reports such as isolation, family rejection, and lack of access to care providers as risk factors. Additionally, the report mentions how individuals arrive with “a lifetime of experiences wrapped in the context of U.S. culture, which as included pervasive discrimination and heterosexism” (Wilder & Wilder, 2012). Again considering the group a minority created awareness of other risk factors. Tolerating homophobic language and jokes, and more life-altering events such as custody battles for children or discrimination on-the-job also are investigated. LGBT members within the service were seen as more likely to report discrimination making life difficult and served as a barrier to a productive life (Wilder & Wilder, 2012).
Issues in Therapy
In times of emotional or psychological distress, individuals often turn to one of two individuals for professional advice. Psychological professionals such as psychologists or psychiatrists should be equipped to assist patients through difficult issues and assist in finding a way to lead a healthy life. The other form of aid that may be more socially acceptable is to turn to a clergyman. Many psychological disturbances can be interpreted as matters of faith or morality, and religion is often seen as a way to resolve issues of this nature. Unfortunately, neither is devoid of flaws. In both cases, the most difficult aspect is the caregiver, not the one seeking aid. Internal bias on the part of the caregiver can have deleterious effects on those already distressed.
In matters of faith, one article discusses how the traditional method of “love the sinner, hate the sin” may be detrimental. Homosexuality is commonly seen as sinful in various religions, and the approach has been to say the individual can be forgiven for his or her sin, then encouraged to renounce such sins. In the case of the LGBT community, the pastoral method has the result of leaving individuals feeling unloved and alienated from the community of faith (Mann, 2013). In American society, the debate is still held regarding if LGBT individuals choose this sexual orientation, or if such is biologically determined; the concept of whether having a homosexual attraction is a matter of choice, or if such is ingrained as part of the individual. Regarding the church’s view on this subject “by failing to challenge the external sources of homophobia in our society, many of these methodologies actually collude with the pathologic shame they aim to alleviate” (Mann, 2013). However, altering the view of this subject in either psychological or pastoral definition is highly political. If psychology were to redefine homosexuality or bisexuality as a disorder, such legitimizes the treatment of this community by the heterosexist culture in America. If religious groups were to accept LGBT members without addressing the perceived sin of homosexuality, many would rebel or revolt as some scriptures denounce homosexuality. Many pastors must learn to be truly neutral for the sake of those seeking aid. From an ethical point of view, pastors must learn to help to alleviate the immobilizing effects of shame, and discourage members of the community with heterosexist views from intervening with the one seeking help (Mann, 2013)
Conversely, LGBT members have reported numerous unhelpful therapy experiences during sessions where the professional showed unsupportive and dissatisfying reactions to issues of sexual orientation (Shelton & Delgado-Romero, 2013). Rather than overt disapproval, aggressions can be as subtle as gestures, minor facial tics, or tone of voice. Such may not even be intentional. “Microaggressions are communications of prejudice and discrimination expressed through seemingly meaningless and unharmful tactics” (Shelton & Delgado-Romero, 2013). Microaggressions are not individual events, either. These forms of discrimination are the conglomeration of multiple comments and actions that create the sense of discrimination or hostility. Small injustices or comments that may individually be harmless, but together show a bias or discriminatory practice that makes the patient feel unwelcome. Some examples of such are the assumption of abnormality, denial of heterosexism, endorsement of heteronormative culture, and assumption that all LGBT experiences are the same (Shelton & Delgado-Romero, 2013). While overt forms of discriminatory practices such as conversion to heterosexuality and reparative therapy have declined sharply, the biased and unhelpful tendencies of therapists have not declined at the same rate (Shelton & Delgado-Romero, 2013). As with pastoral care, professionals need to be very aware of personal feelings or bias concerning specific groups. When possible, professionals should avoid working with those groups to avoid doing more damage than aid.
An example of microaggressions leading to oppression could be a professional sought out for depressive symptology. A patient has had reduced appetite, sleeps or stays in bed nearly all the time, and has difficulty motivating himself to perform daily tasks. Through the course of the discussions, the patient reveals that he has hidden his bisexuality. Because of his suppressed desires, he feels that he is undesirable and has isolated himself from family and friends. This isolation led to depressive symptoms and has progressively gotten worse over the past six months. The therapist in this situation would seek to find ways of alleviating the depression. One microaggression would be to focus on heterosexual relationships, and encourage the patient to find a girlfriend. Such may seem a method of betterment, but doing so ignores the problem and reinforces that the patient should not have the homosexual attractions. Another form of therapy is to try and consciously change the thought patterns of an individual through Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. Making the patient change how he thinks about the situation could be of some help, but in this case again reinforces the ideology that his homosexual attractions are undesirable.
Both ignoring and attempting to change the sexual orientation are forms of microaggressions, despite being meant as help. Both are also forms of internalized oppression, as the patient puts more effort into denying or vilifying homosexual desires. To deny and ignore a portion of himself will make the patient more likely to view these attractions as undesirable, and treat the attractions as signs of bad character. Such leads to further depression, and self-loathing as he internally berates and despises that part of himself. The situation is compounded by him never having a way to escape the oppression, as it literally is in his own head.
Method
Purpose of Study
The literature discusses at length the formation and perpetuation of a heterosexist society creating an oppressive environment for LGBT members. This situation creates the ideology antagonistic to nonheterosexual individuals and can create an internal conflict. LGBT members can doubt sexual orientation, self worth, and become distressed while forming self image to the degree of causing social maladaptation and psychosocial distress. This study seeks to determine how bisexual males aged 19 to 25 living in a non-tolerant community describe finding a safe environment where they can express their individuality, including their sexual orientation. Additionally, the qualitative study will also focus on methods of coping with such an environment, such as finding safety, release of social pressures, and methods of finding normalcy.
Participant Selection
In order to locate viable subjects for the study, locating them becomes an issue. More than any other member of the LGBT community, bisexual individuals can suppress their identity and appear heterosexual to blend into society. This desire to remain anonymous creates challenges in finding individuals for the study. Approaching men in a public place can breach their confidentiality and expose their sexual orientation if the men have not been open previously. Such could put them at risk for abuse or discrimination. Advertising in public areas is not as risky, however having individuals stop to take down information in some way again could expose these men to issues. The area chosen for the study was purposefully antagonistic to men with attraction to men, thus a clinic or area outreach center for the LGBT community is not available. The ethical dilemma in such an environment is to find candidates and conduct the interviews in such a way as to not expose individuals as either homosexual or bisexual males. The study focuses on bisexual males, meaning individuals that likely have heterosexual relationships. Both in gathering a sample group and in gathering data, the confidentiality of the participants must be paramount. As with any study, not only should the safety and security of the patients be considered, but also the confidentiality and ethical treatment. Individuals should be respected and thanked for giving the interviews, and accommodations can be made for location and time to ensure none will be identified for the study publicly.
As such, the most useful tool for locating and conversing with bisexual males would be the internet. A common tool is the website craigslist, in which individuals can post in relative anonymity. Groups on the site differentiate only by genders seeking genders, but have different areas for different types of meetings. By entering the area of males for males (mfm), and putting in an advertisement for bisexual individuals for interviews, such significantly narrows the search. Further, the personal section includes a “strictly platonic” area to ensure no misunderstanding in requests for a meeting. Using this tool will provide safety and protect the privacy of any and all applicants. Accessing from the individual’s home and on his or her schedule will prevent any information being seen by unwanted parties. Interested responders will be encouraged to respond by email for further discussion of what is to be discussed and set up a time to meet for an interview.
The criteria for a viable candidate will be listed on the advertisement. Respondants will have seen the link within the mfm forum, ensuring male applicants. The individuals responding should be between the ages of 19 and 25 to focus on late adolescent through young adult groups. For the purposes of this study, only members that self-identify as bisexual will be considered. Additionally, the area will be confined to a specific region to ensure that the area is hostile or non-accepting of the LGBT community. Word of mouth within the community will be encouraged for a larger sample size, but all new applicants will also be subject to the same criterion. Exclusionary aspects include any form of mental illness, or social isolation regardless of sexual orientation. Individuals that face social oppression must do so because of their sexual status to be viable. Any other reason could interfere with the results, and skew the data.
Procedures and Instruments
After screening for appropriate individuals, meetings will be organized in a one-on-one basis. Participants will be informed that all interviews will be recorded to preserve the integrity of their answers, but no identification beyond age and gender will be included in the report. Confidentiality will be discussed to ensure the privacy of each individual, and to encourage the honesty and completeness of answers to questions when asked. A copy of the transcript will be offered to ensure the individual sees precisely what contribution he will make to the research, and have the opportunity to confirm no personal identification data can be used. Interviews will be in a private setting between myself and the individual to ensure privacy, and last between 35 minutes and an hour depending on the level of detail given. The questions will focus on the experiences of each individual. Each query is designed to focus on some aspect of either the oppressive/heterosexual nature of the environment of the individual, or on the methods of seeking solace from such.
o Please describe when you realized you were bisexual
o Did you ‘come out’ to your family or friends?
Why or why not?
o Were you bullied or treated differently because of your attraction to males?
Examples.
o Do you find it difficult to be bisexual in this area?
o Have you ever sought help or therapy in dealing with these issues?
Was the experience positive or negative? What made it that way?
o Have you found similar individuals to share experiences with?
o Do you still feel like you need to hide your attractions?
How do you maintain your identity as bisexual?
o Do you feel the pressure to be heterosexual difficult to endure?
If in a heterosexual relationship, do you discuss bisexuality with your partner?
o How do you find ways to release the tension, do you have somewhere you like to go?
Is it difficult to get there?
How often do you seek it?
Do you share this method/location with others?
Do you take, or have you considered sharing this location with partners?
Data Analysis and Interpretation
After the interviews, I will replay the recordings, and create a transcript for each individual. The copy will be verbatim to ensure the integrity of all answers. The use of computerized keyword searches will assist in finding themes and patterns among the information on various subjects. The primary aspects will be the formation of oppression, internalized oppression, and finding places where individuals feel safe to openly express sexuality. Keyword searches will be verified through reading the transcripts again to verify patterns and similar elements among responses. Specifically, the transcripts will be searched for both information on finding escape from social pressures and internalized oppression. Anecdotal evidence will be compared for similarities in experiences, and categorized into environments such as home, community, and therapy for where the oppression occurred. Issues of internalized oppression will be coded separately and recorded for severity, frequency, and the degree such interferes with an individual’s life.
Expected Results
From the sample method, I expect a range between a dozen and score of individuals to respond and take part in the research. Approximately 25% should apply and decline to be interviewed, leaving a sample size of 9 to 15 different interviews. The data should show how bisexual men did not generally consider being attracted to males as well as females until close to puberty. Prior to that point, men would not have thought about such matters. The aspect of coming out should be a broad variety, and may include members that have yet to disclose to their social group the attraction to males. This suppression can result from the issues of gender role conflict between what is expected of males, and what an individual feels (Frost & Meyer, 2009).
The ability to have heterosexual relationships affords bisexual individuals the ability to blend in and not expose his or her sexuality. Descriptions of why or why the individual did not come out should help to reinforce the issue of heterosexism and internalized oppression as a hostile environment would make the individual not feel comfortable admitting the sexual orientation, including to himself. Developmental theories suggest internalized homophobia and heterosexism is a major issue for LGBT individuals, and overcoming such is required for a healthy self-concept (Frost & Meyer, 2009). For bisexual individuals, the ability to concentrate on heterosexual relationships and ignore the homosexual attraction can cause negative psychological symptoms. Additionally, the question of being bullied or treated differently typically begins in formative years in school. The experiences a man may have chosen to share will likely focus on home and school, giving examples of societal and cultural gender identity conflict. A different study found that when an individual does not act in a gender-specific manner, or atypical for the societal gender role, harassment in school environments rose. Individuals that refused to conform to behaviors were singled out for abuse that could include physical, verbal, and emotional aspects (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010).
Difficulty being bisexual in a hostile area should reveal commonalities among the sample. Living in the same area will provide similar experiences, including places or demographics that are hostile to the concept of bisexuality. Such may offer insight into heterosexism in the community that is unique to that area, or simply reinforce the American culture norms. Questions of finding similar-minded individuals or the need to hide attraction to males will reveal that bisexual men are often torn between accepting who they are attracted to, and maintaining the image of a heterosexual life. There should be a dichotomy among the sample between those that have found others to express themselves to, and those that have not. The former will have a tight group of friends with whom comfort can be found in just relaxing, and those that are isolated because of their sexual orientation and do not feel comfortable sharing with anybody. Such will be again supported by the question of how an individual identifies as bisexual. A higher level of internalized oppression and homophobia has been linked to higher levels of loneliness, and less social support (Frost & Meyer, 2009).
Only those that openly admit to being bisexual will be appropriate for the study, but maintaining that orientation will delve into internalized oppression among the latter group with no support. Both groups should provide some evidence of pressure to be heterosexual in society. The question regarding a partner offers more current information on how ‘out’ the individual is with his orientation. Studies have shown a correlation between internalized homophobia and difficulty in relationships. Treating bisexuals as a sexual minority group, and applying minority stress theory to the reactions of that group revealed the interaction of internalized oppression and several other factors. Depression and relationship problems were among the mediated factors (Frost & Meyer, 2009).
In finding a relaxing release from the pressures to be heterosexual, again a divide should occur between those that are open and those that are repressed. Finding a method other than drugs and alcohol to relax and accept an attraction to males can be difficult. Those with a support group may go to companion’s homes or social areas that are less hostile to just relax. Those without a support group may prefer to find isolation such as fishing trips or hiking; activities that allow him to be alone and not have to interact with anybody. The difficulty in attaining this relaxed environment will vary depending on the nature of the environment sought. Frequency should be related to the comfort an individual has with his orientation. Those with no support, or struggle with the identity of a bisexual male should seek out this comforting environment more frequently. Similarly, those with a support group would be more willing to share that information with new companions than the isolated members. Groups would include new members, while those that seek escape and solitude would be unlikely to offer company on their private respite. Asking about partners again relates to how open the individual is, and how close their relationship is with that partner.
The data should be fairly homogenous in matters of heterosexism and experience because of the area and culture. Anecdotal evidence will support issues of bias and bullying by others based on behavior and sexual orientation. Such accounts will be added to the theme of oppression, and as supporting experiences for internalized oppression in the same individual. Data should support this trend from earliest offered information through current experiences. A differentiation will become apparent between those with support and those without showing less oppression and more acceptance among those with a group of companions. Individuals without that support will feel more depression and isolation as the internalized oppression makes the individual feel more ashamed of attraction to men as well as women. The level of internalized oppression will be carefully monitored to determine the level of difficulty the male has with his daily life because of that aspect. Frequency and level of difficulty in finding a safe environment to relax in will also correspond to the level of support an individual has. Questions involving a current partner or spouse will give some information on how bisexual men maintain relationships or have difficulty in such.
The question of seeking help touches on the issue of bias and further discrimination from professionals.Two forms of counseling are typically sought in American culture for professional aid. Psychological professionals and clergy provide a safe place for individuals to turn to in most situations. However, in this case both can be a source of negative experience as well. In the case of clergy, lack of specialized training and information forces individuals to struggle with the belief on the subject as opposed to helping the individual seeking counsel (Mann, 2013). Again treating the LGBT community as a sexual minority and applying the minority stress model is important. Without being aware of the increased rates of depression, suicidality, anxiety, substance abuse and compulsivity among the group, faith leaders can unknowingly reinforce the heterosexist norms that created the conflict (Mann, 2013). Professionals in psychotherapy are also possible sources of distress. Personal bias can appear despite attempts to remain objective through snubs, dismissive looks, gestures, tones, and collective word choice in conversation (Shelton & Delgado-Romero, 2013). Any subjects that had sought out aid should have some information regarding difficulty in finding assistance without such forms of bias and heterosexism.
The data collected will be coded into multiple categories based on relevance to specific topics. The primary themes will be oppression, internalized oppression, and release. Oppression will include sub-themes of aggression, social pressure, microaggressions, and discrimination. Such can include bullying at school, work, or in society. Social pressure will include heterosexism such as the way an individual feels about only seeing or noticing heterosexual couples around him. Microaggressions can include comments, tone, and feelings urging the individual to change himself to fit other’s expectations. Internalized oppression will focus on the sub-themes of data relating to feelings of low self-worth, depression, and internal disruptive schemas that attack or oppress homosexual thoughts in such a way as to be detrimental to the mental health of the individual. Such can include purposefully avoiding people or areas, social isolation, and withdrawal from pleasurable activities. Release will focus on how individuals find methods or groups to escape social pressures and relax. Finding an open environment or situation to allow themselves to experience all aspects of their individuality, including sexuality in a safe method.
Discussion
This study was conducted to investigate the life of bisexual men in regards to both enduring and escaping the heterosexism of society. Aspects of this bias are present at least in school-age children, as has been documented by various studies. This situation does not become problematic until adolescence, when awareness of gender roles, and nonconformity to those roles differs from the expected norm (Toomey, Ryan, Diaz, Card, & Russell, 2010). During this period of development, adolescents form a sense of personal identity, and the relation to others of similar situations. As LGBT members are often outliers in this respect, social stigma and scorn are often the result. This hostility and isolation grow concurrently with the level of gender role non-conformity the individual expresses (Chesir-Teran & Hughes, 2009). Unfortunately, the abuse is not limited to educational arenas, with classmates often finding secluded areas to continue the discriminatory practices. Locker rooms, hallways, and other unmonitored areas are subject to this form of ambush abuse that can include verbal, emotional, and physical forms (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010).
Although this discrimination and practice does begin in adolescence, the trend continues through adulthood. The heterosexist nature of American society reinforces the disdain for homosexual individuals. The situation is worse for bisexual individuals. People that are attracted to both genders in some degree are able to sublimate his or her feelings and attempt to live a heterosexual life. For men, the pressure to devalue homosexual individuals or thoughts creates not only the desire to hide such attractions, but also an internal form of oppression as the culturally-reinforced concept of masculinity devalues the individual. This internalized oppression creates personal restrictions on emotionality and affectionate behavior, psychosocial distress, obsessions with control or power, hypercompeditiveness, depression, and social isolation issues (Szymanski & Carr, 200 cool . For bisexual men, the drive for masculinity clashes with the homosexual desires and creates a conflict within the individual. When studied, more than half of participants indicated that masculinity was a priority, three quarters wished to be more masculine than feminine, and most wanted to be more masculine than they felt themselves to be (Szymanski & Ikizler, 2013).
Some men do reach out to others for help in coping with the oppressive issues; both internal and external. Unfortunately, bias does exist among those set to offer aid to those in need. One report discusses how clergy following the axiom of “love the sinner, hate the sin” does more harm than good (Mann, 2013). Clergymen are sworn to help those in need, but the religious doctrines demonizing homosexual desires and acts create an antagonistic environment. This trend is not limited to any single religion, as passages denouncing homosexual pairings are common across several faiths. Ethically, these individuals need to learn a point of neutrality in the subject to help individuals move past feelings of isolation and shame from the heterosexist society. Similarly, professionals in psychology and psychiatry also are sworn to do no harm, and to help patients ease mental issues. When a bias exists, professionals may not be able to fully subdue such ideology, and express themselves in subtle ways. These microaggressions may or may not be intentional, but tactics like seeking to change the patient to avoid homosexual ideology, facial tics, tone of voice, or odd comments made even in the smallest forms can also create a poor environment for help (Shelton & Delgado-Romero, 2013).
Each of these issues is supported by prior research, and likely to occur in the current proposal. As the environment is antagonistic to my sample group, aspects of bullying are highly likely from the school environment on. Additionally, home life may include some heterosexist issues causing even further issues of internalized oppression. An area not open to the LGBT community in any overt way would have limited resources and outreach programs for finding aid, so a general form of help would be sought such as clergy or a local psychologist. In this area, microaggressions are likely even in an attempted therapeutic environment.
Limitations and Implications
As a qualitative study, the volume of data is somewhat subjective to these individuals. Additionally, the area was specifically chosen for antagonism to the LGBT community. The results garnered will not represent a national standard without being compiled with other research, and will reflect a rural area with hostile attitudes. Various other environments exist within American culture including those receptive to different lifestyles and more urban development. Change within the beliefs and attitudes within an individual can take weeks, months or even years. Change within a society are far slower, and can cross generations before a radical change in social standing for any subject is complete. Social evolution in LGBT acceptance is an ongoing process, but evidence exists to show that the change is occurring. This process has created a less hostile environment for lesbian and gay individuals thus far, but not complete acceptance. Bisexual women endure more scrutiny, but are growing in acceptance as well. Bisexual men and transgender individuals still face a great deal of discrimination.
The research remains viable however, as all forms of information are needed for a representative sample of the American culture towards LGBT, and bisexuals in specific. The isolation of this area suits the way most Americans felt in years past, as progressive information may be more accepted in a densely populated area. Larger populations will statistically include a larger LGBT community, denoting a higher need for tolerance. This research represents an area without such pressures, and a more non-progressive area for American culture. To normalize the data, further tests should be repeated in other rural areas to form the basis for the low-density population areas of America. Tests should also be conducted in urban areas in several areas of the country to provide a counterpoint in both density of population and development of an area. A differential would then be possible to see how urban and rural areas differ on opinion, or compiled into a national average of current heterosexism and internalized oppression of bisexual males. As the sexual minority group is effective at sublimating into heterosexual society, this group likely has greater need of study and support than the more vocal lesbian or gay groups that cannot effectively remain silent.
Resources
APA Council of Representatives. (2011, February 20). The Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Clients. Retrieved from American Psychological Association: http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/guidelines/aspx
Cherry, K. (2014). Erikson's Psychosocial Stages Summary Chart. Retrieved from About.com: Psychology: http://psychology.about.com/library/bl_psychosocial_summary.htm
Chesir-Teran, D., & Hughes, D. (2009). Heterosexism in High School and Victimization Among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Questioning Students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 963-975.
Cochran, B. N., Stewart, A. J., Ginzler, J. A., & Cauce, A. M. (2002). Challenges faced by homeless sexual minorities: Comparison of gay, lesbian, and transgender homeless adolescents with their heterosexual counterparts. American Journal of Public Health, 773-777.
Frost, D. M., & Meyer, I. H. (2009). Internalized homophobia and relationship quality among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 97-109.
Mann, M. J. (2013). The Nexus of Stigma and Social Policy: Implications for Pastoral Care and Psychotherapy with Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Persons and Their Families. Pastoral Psychology, 199-210.
McGuire, J. K., Anderson, C. R., Toomey, R. B., & Russell, S. T. (2010). School climate for transgender youth: A mixed method investigation of student experiences and school responses. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 1175-1188.
Rice, M. (1999). Who's who in ancient Egypt. New York: Routledge.
Shelton, K., & Delgado-Romero, E. (2013). Sexual orientation microaggressions: The experience of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer clients in psychotherapy. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 59-70.
Szymanski, D. M., & Carr, E. R. (200 cool . The roles of gender role conflict and internalized heterosexism in gay and bisexual men's psychological distress: Testing two mediation models. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 40-54.
Szymanski, D. M., & Ikizler, A. S. (2013). Internalized heterosexism as a mediator in the relationship between gender role conflict, heterosexist discrimination, and depression among sexual minority men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 211-219.
Toomey, R. B., Ryan, C., Diaz, R. M., Card, N. A., & Russell, S. T. (2010). Gender-nonconforming lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: School victimization and young adult psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 46-52.
Wilder, H., & Wilder, J. (2012). In the wake of Don't Ask Don't Tell: Suicide prevention and outreach for LGB service members. Military Psychology, 624-642.
D. Tom Brooks
PSY 5201 – Integrated Project MS in Psy
Dr Loren Faibisch
June 13, 2014
Despite the various influences on society, and the diverse ethnic background of a populace, cultures thrive on homogeneity. The relative concept of normal is based on a series of unwritten rules of expectations for individuals to behave. One basic expectation is that of gender identity and biological imperative. The concept that men are attracted to women and women are to men is biologically ingrained for procreation purposes. Romantic encounters are expected among these pairings. Conversely, when individuals are attracted to individuals of the same gender or both genders, societal repercussions are often difficult to endure. The concept of homosexuality is not new, however. Evidence exists of men as a couple as early as 2400 BCE in the form of a shared tomb for Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum (Rice, 1999). In recent years, the group of individuals interested either romantically, sexually, or both with members beyond the opposite gender is referred to as the Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual group. Transgenders are also added to this group to become the LGBT community. This group has become increasingly open in American culture within the past several decades. This increase in cultural awareness does not translate into acceptance.
As outliers on what is often assumed to be normal in a societal construct, LGBT members are subject to discrimination. Such can come from a form of neglect, abuse, bullying, verbal or physical attacks, and the heterosexist nature of society (Frost & Meyer, 2009). Documentation and research exists to support that LGBT members often endure higher rates of negative attention. One of the primary environments for this issue is in the teens and school environments (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010). Those that do not conform into the heterosexist expectation are ostracized. LGBT members do often suffer as much or even more through self-depreciation and internalized abuse. Both external and internalized oppression creates issues with self-image and negative social adaptations in individuals. This proposal is to use a qualitative study on the formation of these internalized oppressions and measure the level of social impediment because of said internalized oppressions. Understanding both the creation of and the persistence of such issues, professionals can begin to assist LGBT patients in undoing the damage of these poor social adaptations.
Using the information provided in the literature review, a baseline of previous studies can be discerned. From there, a series of qualitative interviews focused on the bisexual male portion of that community will address some of the concerns with both oppression and heterosexism. Some issues to be aware of include microaggressions, social support, assumptions, and political viewpoints from professionals. The goal of which will be to ascertain the levels of oppression the individual feels, both externally and internally, and determine what escape strategies are used. From this information, patterns will be sought to find both common and viable forms of safety for bisexual males in an environment not conducive to the LGBT community.
Literature Review
School Environment
One of the earliest social environments individuals take part in is school. American culture is a heavily heterosexist culture, with examples extending into preschool with examples of gender identity being provided to young children. One definition of gender identity is the set of beliefs concerning what it means to be male or female both personally and socially. Another is one’s sens of self as male, female, or transgender (APA Council of Representatives, 2011). Gender identity is composed of multiple factors including membership knowledge, gender typicality, pressure to conform, intergroup bias, and gender contentedness (Toomey, Ryan, Diaz, Card, & Russell, 2010). Individuals that do not accept one or more of these aspects can be labeled as outcasts in a societal construct. This view of non-conformity changes as individuals mature. By middle childhood, individuals can differentiate behaviors based on sex and form an abstract concept of the self in gender identity. By adolescence, the intense social demands create a heightened awareness of expected roles, and when individuals do not conform (Toomey, Ryan, Diaz, Card, & Russell, 2010). One study concluded that adolescents’ non-conformity to gender identity was fully mediated by experiences of victimization, meaning the less one conformed to expected roles, the more that individual was subject to abuse and discrimination (Toomey, Ryan, Diaz, Card, & Russell, 2010).
As students achieve adolescence, social orders and groups become increasingly important. As in any social order, a hierarchy forms. According to Erik Erikson’s developmental model, the ages of adolescence from 12 to 18 years are exemplified by the developmental crisis of social relationships. At this age, teens seek to develop a sense of self and personal identity (Cherry, 2014). As societal outliers, LGBT members become ostracized and outcast in most schools. Most of American society including budding school social groups have a heterosexist format, meaning that they assume students are not included in LGBT. This idea is based on attitudes and ideologies present in schools, and exemplified by privilege one group over another (Chesir-Teran & Hughes, 2009). Specifically, the disadvantage of LGBT in relation to heterosexual groups. Through the compliation of individual accounts, data has shown a pattern of discrimination and abuse ranging from verbal and physical abuse to overt discrimination. This data suggests that through either invisibility of LGBT support, or because of hostility towards this group, members of this community can expect discrimination and abuse (Chesir-Teran & Hughes, 2009). One study carefully balanced the presence and absence of programs designed to reach out and aid the LGBT community. These programs create an environment that promotes a more inclusive situation for the community, and without such abuse is rampant. “For LGBTQ students the interralationships among policies, programs, and social normas as they relate to heterosexism have the potential to profoundly influence academic experiences and developmental outcomes” (Chesir-Teran & Hughes, 2009). The inverse is also true. Without these programs, LGBT members face poor social expectations, abuse, maltreatment from both staff and peers, and creates a negative environment that has long-lasting effects.
Further research supports that harassment that is of a more direct nature occurs in areas away from teachers and authority, further supporting the formation of social groups and discrimination simultaneously. This environment is not limited to classrooms, with abuse and harassment being reported in unmonitored areas such as hallways, locker rooms, and the outer areas of campus as classes begin or end for the day (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010). This trend increases exponentially depending on how outspoken an individual is of being LGBT. Those that exemplify greater non-conformity to societal gender roles experience increased victimization with particular focus on transgender individuals. The greater the disparity between gender role and behavior, the higher the level of victimization (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010).Harassment can be physical such as abuse, or simply implied through pressure to conform at least in public with what identity the individual is assumed to fill. This pressure to ‘pass for normal’ supports the heterosexism in society, and can create psychological issues for the individual including depression (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010). This situation persists even in environments where support systems and outreach programs exist. However, in schools that had such programs, members of LGBT communities including the transgenders felt safer and higher rates of graduation with fewer rates of psychosocial detriment (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010).
Human nature is to seek pleasure and avoid pain. As such, the natural tendency is to either avoid or escape situations where an individual is victimized or abused regardless of emotional, physical, or both forms of abuse. LGBT individuals are documented to face both forms of abuse not only in school, but also at home. This pervasive barrage of abuse creates another issue. One study of homeless youths added in the identifier for either heterosexual or lesbian, gay, or bisexual. In that study, adolescents ran away from home at nearly double the rate as heterosexual individuals (Cochran, Stewart, Ginzler, & Cauce, 2002). The listed reasons for this decision were family conflict, desire for freedom, and difficulties with a family member. The study also noted the desire to escape physical abuse, and the presence of alcohol abuse in the home. In the case of LGBT individuals, the latter two reasons were far more likely to be because of the sexual identity of the youth (Cochran, Stewart, Ginzler, & Cauce, 2002). Once homeless, the rates of victimization and sexual victimization become much higher, as individuals are more reliant on whatever methods are available to survive.
Psychological Result
Through the formative years of childhood and adolescence, LGBT individuals endure the heterosexism of school, society, and in many cases home as well. This persistent issue can create internalized homophobia, or negative social attitudes towards non-conforming gender identity individuals by that same individual (Frost & Meyer, 2009). This situation can create multiple psychological issues for an individual including rejection of sexual orientation, and conflict between same-sex affection or desire and the sexual conformity of the person. This conflict has a negative effect on mental health, well being, and how he or she sees themselves (Frost & Meyer, 2009). The resulting feelings of anxiety, shame and devaluation of LGBT individuals creates further complications. Individuals with this internalized homophobia or internalized oppression most often exhibit these conflicts in interpersonal relationships. The internal conflict with sexual orientation and social expectation can manifest as ambivalence, relational conflict, and misunderstandings. Such furthers the stigma that LGBT members are not capable of stable, loving relationships (Frost & Meyer, 2009).
When considering gender role identity, and the social pressure of becoming a man, many men are faced with conflicting information. Sexual minority men are in a society that does not support that gender identity, and are given information on how to be a man based on heterosexist views. Such influences sexual minority men, and the pervasive attitudes about being either gay or bisexual (Szymanski & Carr, 200 cool . The disparity between what society considers a man and the identity of a gay or bisexual man inevitably creates conflict and psychosocial distress. The cultural devaluation, personal restriction, and violation of self or others creates the gender role conflict for men seeking an identity. The fear of femininity in men’s lives produces aspects such as restrictive emotionality, obsession with success and achievement, restricted affectionate behavior, and control, power, and competition issues (Szymanski & Carr, 200 cool . These aspects are the issue gender role conflict has created, but the symptoms are more subtle. Commonly, the symptoms include depression, emotional distress, anger, loneliness, anxiety, substance abuse, interpersonal problems, and conduct problems (Szymanski & Carr, 200 cool .
In a related study, sexual minority men emphasized that the gender role of masculinity was very important to them. Mor than half of participants indicated that masculinity was a priority, three-quarters wished to be more masculine than feminine, and most wanted to be more masculine than they assumed themselves to be (Szymanski & Ikizler, 2013). This study also referenced other studies into the psychological health of men, and discovered gender role conflict was linked to depression in 23 of 26 studies. Additionally, gay and bisexual men are a sexual minority, thus allowing the Minority Stress Theory to apply to their evaluation. Through that theory, aspects of society such as heterosexist stigma, prejudice against LGBT, and discrimination create a hostile and stressful social environment with compounds internalized oppression (Szymanski & Ikizler, 2013). Studies into the particular stressors included over half having been referred to as heterosexist slurs, and been treated unfairly by coworkers. The same level of participants also reported hearing sexist slurs from family members, and with approximately a third of the sample being openly rejected for his sexual orientation. Nearly half the sample reported being discriminated against by service personnel (Szymanski & Ikizler, 2013). In some states, this practice has become legal, further empowering the discrimination of LGBT individuals based on religious freedom.
One unfortunate issue with depression is the aspect of suicidal ideology. The risk of committing suicide is increased by social or personal stress, isolation, and discrimination. For sexual minority men, this can be particularly oppressive in a classicly hyper-masculine environment, such as the armed forces. Heterosexism and gender are common themes in training and military life. In America, a law was enforced for some time called “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” wherein an individual was legally protected to refrain from giving any details about his or her sexual orientation. Such prevented any form of coming out within the military, and left servicemen and women as more generalized. Such also supported the heterosexist environment of military life. That law was rescinded in 2011, only to create a new awareness of LGBT servicemen. The sexually stigmatized environment of the armed forces only heightens the risk of psychological distress and suicide for these individuals. One report cites similar stressors as other reports such as isolation, family rejection, and lack of access to care providers as risk factors. Additionally, the report mentions how individuals arrive with “a lifetime of experiences wrapped in the context of U.S. culture, which as included pervasive discrimination and heterosexism” (Wilder & Wilder, 2012). Again considering the group a minority created awareness of other risk factors. Tolerating homophobic language and jokes, and more life-altering events such as custody battles for children or discrimination on-the-job also are investigated. LGBT members within the service were seen as more likely to report discrimination making life difficult and served as a barrier to a productive life (Wilder & Wilder, 2012).
Issues in Therapy
In times of emotional or psychological distress, individuals often turn to one of two individuals for professional advice. Psychological professionals such as psychologists or psychiatrists should be equipped to assist patients through difficult issues and assist in finding a way to lead a healthy life. The other form of aid that may be more socially acceptable is to turn to a clergyman. Many psychological disturbances can be interpreted as matters of faith or morality, and religion is often seen as a way to resolve issues of this nature. Unfortunately, neither is devoid of flaws. In both cases, the most difficult aspect is the caregiver, not the one seeking aid. Internal bias on the part of the caregiver can have deleterious effects on those already distressed.
In matters of faith, one article discusses how the traditional method of “love the sinner, hate the sin” may be detrimental. Homosexuality is commonly seen as sinful in various religions, and the approach has been to say the individual can be forgiven for his or her sin, then encouraged to renounce such sins. In the case of the LGBT community, the pastoral method has the result of leaving individuals feeling unloved and alienated from the community of faith (Mann, 2013). In American society, the debate is still held regarding if LGBT individuals choose this sexual orientation, or if such is biologically determined; the concept of whether having a homosexual attraction is a matter of choice, or if such is ingrained as part of the individual. Regarding the church’s view on this subject “by failing to challenge the external sources of homophobia in our society, many of these methodologies actually collude with the pathologic shame they aim to alleviate” (Mann, 2013). However, altering the view of this subject in either psychological or pastoral definition is highly political. If psychology were to redefine homosexuality or bisexuality as a disorder, such legitimizes the treatment of this community by the heterosexist culture in America. If religious groups were to accept LGBT members without addressing the perceived sin of homosexuality, many would rebel or revolt as some scriptures denounce homosexuality. Many pastors must learn to be truly neutral for the sake of those seeking aid. From an ethical point of view, pastors must learn to help to alleviate the immobilizing effects of shame, and discourage members of the community with heterosexist views from intervening with the one seeking help (Mann, 2013)
Conversely, LGBT members have reported numerous unhelpful therapy experiences during sessions where the professional showed unsupportive and dissatisfying reactions to issues of sexual orientation (Shelton & Delgado-Romero, 2013). Rather than overt disapproval, aggressions can be as subtle as gestures, minor facial tics, or tone of voice. Such may not even be intentional. “Microaggressions are communications of prejudice and discrimination expressed through seemingly meaningless and unharmful tactics” (Shelton & Delgado-Romero, 2013). Microaggressions are not individual events, either. These forms of discrimination are the conglomeration of multiple comments and actions that create the sense of discrimination or hostility. Small injustices or comments that may individually be harmless, but together show a bias or discriminatory practice that makes the patient feel unwelcome. Some examples of such are the assumption of abnormality, denial of heterosexism, endorsement of heteronormative culture, and assumption that all LGBT experiences are the same (Shelton & Delgado-Romero, 2013). While overt forms of discriminatory practices such as conversion to heterosexuality and reparative therapy have declined sharply, the biased and unhelpful tendencies of therapists have not declined at the same rate (Shelton & Delgado-Romero, 2013). As with pastoral care, professionals need to be very aware of personal feelings or bias concerning specific groups. When possible, professionals should avoid working with those groups to avoid doing more damage than aid.
An example of microaggressions leading to oppression could be a professional sought out for depressive symptology. A patient has had reduced appetite, sleeps or stays in bed nearly all the time, and has difficulty motivating himself to perform daily tasks. Through the course of the discussions, the patient reveals that he has hidden his bisexuality. Because of his suppressed desires, he feels that he is undesirable and has isolated himself from family and friends. This isolation led to depressive symptoms and has progressively gotten worse over the past six months. The therapist in this situation would seek to find ways of alleviating the depression. One microaggression would be to focus on heterosexual relationships, and encourage the patient to find a girlfriend. Such may seem a method of betterment, but doing so ignores the problem and reinforces that the patient should not have the homosexual attractions. Another form of therapy is to try and consciously change the thought patterns of an individual through Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. Making the patient change how he thinks about the situation could be of some help, but in this case again reinforces the ideology that his homosexual attractions are undesirable.
Both ignoring and attempting to change the sexual orientation are forms of microaggressions, despite being meant as help. Both are also forms of internalized oppression, as the patient puts more effort into denying or vilifying homosexual desires. To deny and ignore a portion of himself will make the patient more likely to view these attractions as undesirable, and treat the attractions as signs of bad character. Such leads to further depression, and self-loathing as he internally berates and despises that part of himself. The situation is compounded by him never having a way to escape the oppression, as it literally is in his own head.
Method
Purpose of Study
The literature discusses at length the formation and perpetuation of a heterosexist society creating an oppressive environment for LGBT members. This situation creates the ideology antagonistic to nonheterosexual individuals and can create an internal conflict. LGBT members can doubt sexual orientation, self worth, and become distressed while forming self image to the degree of causing social maladaptation and psychosocial distress. This study seeks to determine how bisexual males aged 19 to 25 living in a non-tolerant community describe finding a safe environment where they can express their individuality, including their sexual orientation. Additionally, the qualitative study will also focus on methods of coping with such an environment, such as finding safety, release of social pressures, and methods of finding normalcy.
Participant Selection
In order to locate viable subjects for the study, locating them becomes an issue. More than any other member of the LGBT community, bisexual individuals can suppress their identity and appear heterosexual to blend into society. This desire to remain anonymous creates challenges in finding individuals for the study. Approaching men in a public place can breach their confidentiality and expose their sexual orientation if the men have not been open previously. Such could put them at risk for abuse or discrimination. Advertising in public areas is not as risky, however having individuals stop to take down information in some way again could expose these men to issues. The area chosen for the study was purposefully antagonistic to men with attraction to men, thus a clinic or area outreach center for the LGBT community is not available. The ethical dilemma in such an environment is to find candidates and conduct the interviews in such a way as to not expose individuals as either homosexual or bisexual males. The study focuses on bisexual males, meaning individuals that likely have heterosexual relationships. Both in gathering a sample group and in gathering data, the confidentiality of the participants must be paramount. As with any study, not only should the safety and security of the patients be considered, but also the confidentiality and ethical treatment. Individuals should be respected and thanked for giving the interviews, and accommodations can be made for location and time to ensure none will be identified for the study publicly.
As such, the most useful tool for locating and conversing with bisexual males would be the internet. A common tool is the website craigslist, in which individuals can post in relative anonymity. Groups on the site differentiate only by genders seeking genders, but have different areas for different types of meetings. By entering the area of males for males (mfm), and putting in an advertisement for bisexual individuals for interviews, such significantly narrows the search. Further, the personal section includes a “strictly platonic” area to ensure no misunderstanding in requests for a meeting. Using this tool will provide safety and protect the privacy of any and all applicants. Accessing from the individual’s home and on his or her schedule will prevent any information being seen by unwanted parties. Interested responders will be encouraged to respond by email for further discussion of what is to be discussed and set up a time to meet for an interview.
The criteria for a viable candidate will be listed on the advertisement. Respondants will have seen the link within the mfm forum, ensuring male applicants. The individuals responding should be between the ages of 19 and 25 to focus on late adolescent through young adult groups. For the purposes of this study, only members that self-identify as bisexual will be considered. Additionally, the area will be confined to a specific region to ensure that the area is hostile or non-accepting of the LGBT community. Word of mouth within the community will be encouraged for a larger sample size, but all new applicants will also be subject to the same criterion. Exclusionary aspects include any form of mental illness, or social isolation regardless of sexual orientation. Individuals that face social oppression must do so because of their sexual status to be viable. Any other reason could interfere with the results, and skew the data.
Procedures and Instruments
After screening for appropriate individuals, meetings will be organized in a one-on-one basis. Participants will be informed that all interviews will be recorded to preserve the integrity of their answers, but no identification beyond age and gender will be included in the report. Confidentiality will be discussed to ensure the privacy of each individual, and to encourage the honesty and completeness of answers to questions when asked. A copy of the transcript will be offered to ensure the individual sees precisely what contribution he will make to the research, and have the opportunity to confirm no personal identification data can be used. Interviews will be in a private setting between myself and the individual to ensure privacy, and last between 35 minutes and an hour depending on the level of detail given. The questions will focus on the experiences of each individual. Each query is designed to focus on some aspect of either the oppressive/heterosexual nature of the environment of the individual, or on the methods of seeking solace from such.
o Please describe when you realized you were bisexual
o Did you ‘come out’ to your family or friends?
Why or why not?
o Were you bullied or treated differently because of your attraction to males?
Examples.
o Do you find it difficult to be bisexual in this area?
o Have you ever sought help or therapy in dealing with these issues?
Was the experience positive or negative? What made it that way?
o Have you found similar individuals to share experiences with?
o Do you still feel like you need to hide your attractions?
How do you maintain your identity as bisexual?
o Do you feel the pressure to be heterosexual difficult to endure?
If in a heterosexual relationship, do you discuss bisexuality with your partner?
o How do you find ways to release the tension, do you have somewhere you like to go?
Is it difficult to get there?
How often do you seek it?
Do you share this method/location with others?
Do you take, or have you considered sharing this location with partners?
Data Analysis and Interpretation
After the interviews, I will replay the recordings, and create a transcript for each individual. The copy will be verbatim to ensure the integrity of all answers. The use of computerized keyword searches will assist in finding themes and patterns among the information on various subjects. The primary aspects will be the formation of oppression, internalized oppression, and finding places where individuals feel safe to openly express sexuality. Keyword searches will be verified through reading the transcripts again to verify patterns and similar elements among responses. Specifically, the transcripts will be searched for both information on finding escape from social pressures and internalized oppression. Anecdotal evidence will be compared for similarities in experiences, and categorized into environments such as home, community, and therapy for where the oppression occurred. Issues of internalized oppression will be coded separately and recorded for severity, frequency, and the degree such interferes with an individual’s life.
Expected Results
From the sample method, I expect a range between a dozen and score of individuals to respond and take part in the research. Approximately 25% should apply and decline to be interviewed, leaving a sample size of 9 to 15 different interviews. The data should show how bisexual men did not generally consider being attracted to males as well as females until close to puberty. Prior to that point, men would not have thought about such matters. The aspect of coming out should be a broad variety, and may include members that have yet to disclose to their social group the attraction to males. This suppression can result from the issues of gender role conflict between what is expected of males, and what an individual feels (Frost & Meyer, 2009).
The ability to have heterosexual relationships affords bisexual individuals the ability to blend in and not expose his or her sexuality. Descriptions of why or why the individual did not come out should help to reinforce the issue of heterosexism and internalized oppression as a hostile environment would make the individual not feel comfortable admitting the sexual orientation, including to himself. Developmental theories suggest internalized homophobia and heterosexism is a major issue for LGBT individuals, and overcoming such is required for a healthy self-concept (Frost & Meyer, 2009). For bisexual individuals, the ability to concentrate on heterosexual relationships and ignore the homosexual attraction can cause negative psychological symptoms. Additionally, the question of being bullied or treated differently typically begins in formative years in school. The experiences a man may have chosen to share will likely focus on home and school, giving examples of societal and cultural gender identity conflict. A different study found that when an individual does not act in a gender-specific manner, or atypical for the societal gender role, harassment in school environments rose. Individuals that refused to conform to behaviors were singled out for abuse that could include physical, verbal, and emotional aspects (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010).
Difficulty being bisexual in a hostile area should reveal commonalities among the sample. Living in the same area will provide similar experiences, including places or demographics that are hostile to the concept of bisexuality. Such may offer insight into heterosexism in the community that is unique to that area, or simply reinforce the American culture norms. Questions of finding similar-minded individuals or the need to hide attraction to males will reveal that bisexual men are often torn between accepting who they are attracted to, and maintaining the image of a heterosexual life. There should be a dichotomy among the sample between those that have found others to express themselves to, and those that have not. The former will have a tight group of friends with whom comfort can be found in just relaxing, and those that are isolated because of their sexual orientation and do not feel comfortable sharing with anybody. Such will be again supported by the question of how an individual identifies as bisexual. A higher level of internalized oppression and homophobia has been linked to higher levels of loneliness, and less social support (Frost & Meyer, 2009).
Only those that openly admit to being bisexual will be appropriate for the study, but maintaining that orientation will delve into internalized oppression among the latter group with no support. Both groups should provide some evidence of pressure to be heterosexual in society. The question regarding a partner offers more current information on how ‘out’ the individual is with his orientation. Studies have shown a correlation between internalized homophobia and difficulty in relationships. Treating bisexuals as a sexual minority group, and applying minority stress theory to the reactions of that group revealed the interaction of internalized oppression and several other factors. Depression and relationship problems were among the mediated factors (Frost & Meyer, 2009).
In finding a relaxing release from the pressures to be heterosexual, again a divide should occur between those that are open and those that are repressed. Finding a method other than drugs and alcohol to relax and accept an attraction to males can be difficult. Those with a support group may go to companion’s homes or social areas that are less hostile to just relax. Those without a support group may prefer to find isolation such as fishing trips or hiking; activities that allow him to be alone and not have to interact with anybody. The difficulty in attaining this relaxed environment will vary depending on the nature of the environment sought. Frequency should be related to the comfort an individual has with his orientation. Those with no support, or struggle with the identity of a bisexual male should seek out this comforting environment more frequently. Similarly, those with a support group would be more willing to share that information with new companions than the isolated members. Groups would include new members, while those that seek escape and solitude would be unlikely to offer company on their private respite. Asking about partners again relates to how open the individual is, and how close their relationship is with that partner.
The data should be fairly homogenous in matters of heterosexism and experience because of the area and culture. Anecdotal evidence will support issues of bias and bullying by others based on behavior and sexual orientation. Such accounts will be added to the theme of oppression, and as supporting experiences for internalized oppression in the same individual. Data should support this trend from earliest offered information through current experiences. A differentiation will become apparent between those with support and those without showing less oppression and more acceptance among those with a group of companions. Individuals without that support will feel more depression and isolation as the internalized oppression makes the individual feel more ashamed of attraction to men as well as women. The level of internalized oppression will be carefully monitored to determine the level of difficulty the male has with his daily life because of that aspect. Frequency and level of difficulty in finding a safe environment to relax in will also correspond to the level of support an individual has. Questions involving a current partner or spouse will give some information on how bisexual men maintain relationships or have difficulty in such.
The question of seeking help touches on the issue of bias and further discrimination from professionals.Two forms of counseling are typically sought in American culture for professional aid. Psychological professionals and clergy provide a safe place for individuals to turn to in most situations. However, in this case both can be a source of negative experience as well. In the case of clergy, lack of specialized training and information forces individuals to struggle with the belief on the subject as opposed to helping the individual seeking counsel (Mann, 2013). Again treating the LGBT community as a sexual minority and applying the minority stress model is important. Without being aware of the increased rates of depression, suicidality, anxiety, substance abuse and compulsivity among the group, faith leaders can unknowingly reinforce the heterosexist norms that created the conflict (Mann, 2013). Professionals in psychotherapy are also possible sources of distress. Personal bias can appear despite attempts to remain objective through snubs, dismissive looks, gestures, tones, and collective word choice in conversation (Shelton & Delgado-Romero, 2013). Any subjects that had sought out aid should have some information regarding difficulty in finding assistance without such forms of bias and heterosexism.
The data collected will be coded into multiple categories based on relevance to specific topics. The primary themes will be oppression, internalized oppression, and release. Oppression will include sub-themes of aggression, social pressure, microaggressions, and discrimination. Such can include bullying at school, work, or in society. Social pressure will include heterosexism such as the way an individual feels about only seeing or noticing heterosexual couples around him. Microaggressions can include comments, tone, and feelings urging the individual to change himself to fit other’s expectations. Internalized oppression will focus on the sub-themes of data relating to feelings of low self-worth, depression, and internal disruptive schemas that attack or oppress homosexual thoughts in such a way as to be detrimental to the mental health of the individual. Such can include purposefully avoiding people or areas, social isolation, and withdrawal from pleasurable activities. Release will focus on how individuals find methods or groups to escape social pressures and relax. Finding an open environment or situation to allow themselves to experience all aspects of their individuality, including sexuality in a safe method.
Discussion
This study was conducted to investigate the life of bisexual men in regards to both enduring and escaping the heterosexism of society. Aspects of this bias are present at least in school-age children, as has been documented by various studies. This situation does not become problematic until adolescence, when awareness of gender roles, and nonconformity to those roles differs from the expected norm (Toomey, Ryan, Diaz, Card, & Russell, 2010). During this period of development, adolescents form a sense of personal identity, and the relation to others of similar situations. As LGBT members are often outliers in this respect, social stigma and scorn are often the result. This hostility and isolation grow concurrently with the level of gender role non-conformity the individual expresses (Chesir-Teran & Hughes, 2009). Unfortunately, the abuse is not limited to educational arenas, with classmates often finding secluded areas to continue the discriminatory practices. Locker rooms, hallways, and other unmonitored areas are subject to this form of ambush abuse that can include verbal, emotional, and physical forms (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russell, 2010).
Although this discrimination and practice does begin in adolescence, the trend continues through adulthood. The heterosexist nature of American society reinforces the disdain for homosexual individuals. The situation is worse for bisexual individuals. People that are attracted to both genders in some degree are able to sublimate his or her feelings and attempt to live a heterosexual life. For men, the pressure to devalue homosexual individuals or thoughts creates not only the desire to hide such attractions, but also an internal form of oppression as the culturally-reinforced concept of masculinity devalues the individual. This internalized oppression creates personal restrictions on emotionality and affectionate behavior, psychosocial distress, obsessions with control or power, hypercompeditiveness, depression, and social isolation issues (Szymanski & Carr, 200 cool . For bisexual men, the drive for masculinity clashes with the homosexual desires and creates a conflict within the individual. When studied, more than half of participants indicated that masculinity was a priority, three quarters wished to be more masculine than feminine, and most wanted to be more masculine than they felt themselves to be (Szymanski & Ikizler, 2013).
Some men do reach out to others for help in coping with the oppressive issues; both internal and external. Unfortunately, bias does exist among those set to offer aid to those in need. One report discusses how clergy following the axiom of “love the sinner, hate the sin” does more harm than good (Mann, 2013). Clergymen are sworn to help those in need, but the religious doctrines demonizing homosexual desires and acts create an antagonistic environment. This trend is not limited to any single religion, as passages denouncing homosexual pairings are common across several faiths. Ethically, these individuals need to learn a point of neutrality in the subject to help individuals move past feelings of isolation and shame from the heterosexist society. Similarly, professionals in psychology and psychiatry also are sworn to do no harm, and to help patients ease mental issues. When a bias exists, professionals may not be able to fully subdue such ideology, and express themselves in subtle ways. These microaggressions may or may not be intentional, but tactics like seeking to change the patient to avoid homosexual ideology, facial tics, tone of voice, or odd comments made even in the smallest forms can also create a poor environment for help (Shelton & Delgado-Romero, 2013).
Each of these issues is supported by prior research, and likely to occur in the current proposal. As the environment is antagonistic to my sample group, aspects of bullying are highly likely from the school environment on. Additionally, home life may include some heterosexist issues causing even further issues of internalized oppression. An area not open to the LGBT community in any overt way would have limited resources and outreach programs for finding aid, so a general form of help would be sought such as clergy or a local psychologist. In this area, microaggressions are likely even in an attempted therapeutic environment.
Limitations and Implications
As a qualitative study, the volume of data is somewhat subjective to these individuals. Additionally, the area was specifically chosen for antagonism to the LGBT community. The results garnered will not represent a national standard without being compiled with other research, and will reflect a rural area with hostile attitudes. Various other environments exist within American culture including those receptive to different lifestyles and more urban development. Change within the beliefs and attitudes within an individual can take weeks, months or even years. Change within a society are far slower, and can cross generations before a radical change in social standing for any subject is complete. Social evolution in LGBT acceptance is an ongoing process, but evidence exists to show that the change is occurring. This process has created a less hostile environment for lesbian and gay individuals thus far, but not complete acceptance. Bisexual women endure more scrutiny, but are growing in acceptance as well. Bisexual men and transgender individuals still face a great deal of discrimination.
The research remains viable however, as all forms of information are needed for a representative sample of the American culture towards LGBT, and bisexuals in specific. The isolation of this area suits the way most Americans felt in years past, as progressive information may be more accepted in a densely populated area. Larger populations will statistically include a larger LGBT community, denoting a higher need for tolerance. This research represents an area without such pressures, and a more non-progressive area for American culture. To normalize the data, further tests should be repeated in other rural areas to form the basis for the low-density population areas of America. Tests should also be conducted in urban areas in several areas of the country to provide a counterpoint in both density of population and development of an area. A differential would then be possible to see how urban and rural areas differ on opinion, or compiled into a national average of current heterosexism and internalized oppression of bisexual males. As the sexual minority group is effective at sublimating into heterosexual society, this group likely has greater need of study and support than the more vocal lesbian or gay groups that cannot effectively remain silent.
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